Abstract
The challenge hypothesis posits a correlation between male androgen levels and mating system, male–male aggression in a sexual context, and parental effort. This model has received support across a variety of taxa, including primates. Most primate studies have focused on multi-male societies characterized by relatively high levels of male–male aggression and limited paternal care. To expand this dataset, predictions of the challenge hypothesis were tested in a population of wild siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus), small apes characterized by intense territoriality, monogamous/polyandrous grouping patterns, and varying amounts of paternal behavior. Behavioral data were collected on 11 study groups (five two-male groups and six one-male groups). Seven hundred thirty-four fecal samples were collected from 18 adult males to quantify concentrations of fecal immunoreactive androgens (fiA) by radioimmunoassay. As predicted by the challenge hypothesis, males involved in the aggressive replacement of a resident male had significantly higher fiA concentrations than control males, while males displaying active parental care had significantly lower fiA concentrations than average. Results showed no association between male androgen concentration and group composition, male rank, or rate of intragroup male–male aggression. These latter findings, seemingly inconsistent with the hypothesis, could be explained by the clear and stable dominance relationships between co-resident males: given the very low rates of physical aggression, a low baseline testosterone is to be expected. Furthermore, the effects of increased intragroup conflict experienced by males in two-male groups might be offset by the higher frequency of intergroup aggression experienced by males in one-male groups.
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Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Laji, Tarmin, Usman, Maryadi, Mislan, Budi, and Opo for their commitment, skill, and positive attitude in the forest; to my parents, Ignacia Perugorria, Jacqueline Hicks, Alice Elder, Flor Gragera de Leon, and Susana Galan for their support at different stages of this project; to Marc Shur for inspiring conversations; to Ryne Palombit, Susan Lappan, Jacinta Beehner, and Carola Borries for professional, wise, and supportive advising; to Guang Dong, Erin Vogel, and Andrew MacIntosh for statistical advice; to Susana Galan for her patience and perception; to Larry Katz and Susan Becker (Animal Sciences Lab, Rutgers University) for introducing me to the beauty and rigor of labwork; and to three anonymous reviewers for their meticulous and constructive comments. I gratefully acknowledge the National Science Foundation (Grant ID 0726022) and Wenner-Gren Foundation (Grant 7766) for funding my research project and the State Ministry of Research and Technology and Forestry Department of Indonesia for permission to conduct research in Sumatra.
Ethical standards
The collection of behavioral and hormonal data complied with current laws of Indonesia and Rutgers University.
Conflict of interest
I have no financial relationship with the foundations/organizations that sponsored my research.
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Communicated by D. P. Watts
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Morino, L. Social correlates of androgen levels in a facultatively monogamous ape (Symphalangus syndactylus): a test of the challenge hypothesis. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 69, 243–251 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-014-1837-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-014-1837-1