Abstract
Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the Southern Hemisphere were heavily exploited by commercial whaling. Today, their recovery is variable: Humpbacks remain surprisingly scarce in some formerly populous areas (e.g., New Zealand, Fiji), while in other regions (such as eastern Australia), they appear to be rebounding at or even above the maximum plausible rate of annual increase. Here, we propose that this phenomenon cannot be explained solely in demographic terms. Through simulation, we test the hypothesis that reported high rates of increase represent a combination of true intrinsic growth rates and temporary immigration, driven by a strong tendency to aggregate for mating. We introduce the idea that overexploitation diminished density at major breeding grounds such that these were no longer viable; then, during subsequent population recovery, a critical mass was attained in certain areas which drew in whales that formerly bred elsewhere. The simulations show that, to maintain high increase rates, the contribution to that rate by temporary immigration from a second, “source” population would have to represent a larger and larger proportion of the source stock and would require relatively high (but quite plausible) intrinsic rates of increase for each population. In the modeling scenarios, the demand for immigrants would eventually exceed the supply and exhaust the source population, but the simulations demonstrated that high increase rates can be sustained over periods of more than 20 years. This hypothesis, if correct, would not only explain excessively high rates of increase in current “hotspots” such as eastern Australia, but also imply that formerly important areas (e.g., Fiji) host few whales today not necessarily because of a failure to recover, but because the species’ mating system leads the whales concerned to migrate to higher-density breeding grounds elsewhere. Overall, we caution that assessments of depleted animal populations that do not consider the social behavior of a species are missing a potentially vital component of the picture.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker CS, Garrigue C, Constantine R, Madon B, Poole M, Hauser N, Clapham P, Donoghue M, Russell K, Paton D, Mattila D (2006) Abundance of humpback whales in Oceania (South Pacific), 1999 to 2004. Paper SC/A06/HW51 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Bannister JL, Hedley SL (2001) Southern Hemisphere Group IV humpback whales: their status from recent aerial surveys. Mem Qld Mus 47:587–598
Bannister JL, Kirkwood GP, Wayte SE (1991) Increase in humpback whales off Western Australia. Rep Int Whal Comm 41:461–465
Brown MR, Field MS, Brown CE, Bryden MM (2003) Rates of increase for east Australian humpback whales, Megaptera novaeangliae, from 1981–2000. Paper SC/55/SH21 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Bryden MM, Brown MR, Field MS, Clarke ED, Butterworth DS (1996) Survey of humpback whales off eastern Australia, 1996. Report to the Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra, 77 pp
Cerchio S, Gabriele CM, Norris TF, Herman LM (1998) Movements of humpback whales between Kauai and Hawaii: implications for population structure and abundance estimation in the Hawaiian Islands. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 175:13–22
Childerhouse S, Gibbs N (2005) Preliminary report on the humpback whale survey, winter 2005. Report to the Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand
Chittleborough RG (1965) Dynamics of two populations of the humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski). Aus J Mar Freshw Res 16:33–128
Clapham PJ (1996) The social and reproductive biology of humpback whales: an ecological perspective. Mammal Rev 26:27–49
Clapham PJ (2000) The humpback whale: seasonal feeding and breeding in a baleen whale. In: Mann J, Tyack PL, Connor R, Whitehead H (eds) Cetacean societies. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 173–196
Clapham P, Baker CS (2008) Modern whaling. In: Perrin WF, Würsig B, Thewissen JGM (eds) Encyclopedia of marine mammals, 2nd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 1339–1343
Clapham PJ, Aguilar A, Hatch LT (2008) Determining spatial and temporal scales for the management of cetaceans: lessons from whaling. Mar Mamm Sci 24:183–202
Clapham P, Mikhalev Y, Franklin W, Paton D, Baker CS, Ivashchenko YV, Brownell RL Jr (2009) Catches of humpback whales by the Soviet Union and other nations in the Southern Ocean, 1947–1973. Mar Fish Rev 71:39–43
Constantine R, Russell K, Gibbs N et al (2007) Photo-identification of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in New Zealand waters and their migratory connections to breeding grounds of Oceania. Mar Mamm Sci 23:715–720
Constantine R, Jackson J, Steel D, Baker CS, Brooks L, Burns D, Clapham P, Hauser N, Madon B, Mattila D, Oremus M, Poole M, Robbins J, Thompson K, Garrigue C (2012) Abundance of humpback whales in Oceania using photo-identification and microsatellite genotyping. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 453:249–261
Craig AS, Herman LM, Pack AA, Waterman JO (2014) Habitat segregation by females humpback whales in Hawaiian waters: Avoidance of males? Behaviour 151:613–631
Franklin T, Franklin W, Brooks L, Harrison P, Baverstock P, Clapham P (2011) Seasonal changes in pod characteristics of eastern Australian humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) Hervey Bay, 1992–2005. Mar Mamm Sci 27:134–152
Garrigue C, Dodemont R, Steel D, Baker CS (2004) Organismal and ‘gametic’ capture-recapture using microsatellite genotyping confirm low abundance and reproductive autonomy of humpback whales on the wintering grounds of New Caledonia. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 274:251–262
Gibbs N, Childerhouse S, Paton D, Clapham P (2006) Assessment of the current abundance of humpback whales in the Lomaiviti Island group of Fiji and a comparison with historical data. Paper SC/A06/H34 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Herman LM (1979) Humpback whales in Hawaiian waters: a study in historical ecology. Pac Sci 33:1–15
Herman LM, Pack AA, Rose K, Craig A, Herman EYK, Hakala S, Milette A (2011) Resightings of humpback whales in Hawaiian waters over spans of 10–32 years: site fidelity, sex ratios, calving rates, female demographics, and the dynamics of social and behavioral roles of individuals. Mar Mamm Sci 27:736–768
Herman LM, Pack AA, Spitz SS, Herman EYK, Rose K, Hakala S, Deakos MH (2013) Humpback whale song: Who sings? Behav Ecol Sociobiol. doi:10.1007/s00265-013-1576-8
Ivashchenko YV, Clapham PJ, Brownell RL Jr (2011) Soviet illegal whaling: the devil and the details. Mar Fish Rev 73:1–19
IWC (2006) Report of the sub-committee on other Southern Hemisphere whale stocks. J Cetacean Res Manag 7(supplement):235–246
Lebo S (2010) A local perspective of Hawaii's whaling economy: whale traditions and government regulation of the kingdom's native seamen and whale fishery. Coriolis 1:3–37
Martins CA, Morete ME, Engel MH, Freitas A, Secchi ER, Kinas PG (2001) Aspects of habitat use patterns of humpback whales in the Abrolhos Bank, Brazil, breeding ground. Mem Qld Mus 47:563–570
Mattila DK, Clapham PJ, Katona SK, Stone GS (1989) Population composition of humpback whales on Silver Bank. Can J Zool 67:281–285
Noad MJ, Dunlop R, Paton D, Cato DH (2011a) Absolute and relative abundance estimates of Australian east coast humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae). J Cetacean Res Manag 3:243–252 (Special issue)
Noad M, Dunlop R, Paton D, Kniest H (2011b) Abundance estimates of the east Australian humpback whale population: 2010 survey and update. Paper SC/63/SH22 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Olavarría C, Baker CS, Garrigue C, Poole M, Hauser N, Caballero S, Flórez-González L, Brassuer M, Capella J, Clapham P, Dodemont R, Donoghue M, Jenner MN, Moro D, Oremus M, Paton D, Russell K (2007) Population structure of humpback whales throughout the South Pacific, and the origin of the eastern Polynesian breeding grounds. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 330:257–268
Paterson R, Paterson P, Cato DH (1994) The status of humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae in East Australia thirty years after whaling. Biol Conserv 70:135–142
Paterson R, Paterson P, Cato DH (2004) Continued increase in east Australian humpback whales in 2001, 2002. Mem Qld Mus 49:712
Paton D, Clapham P (2002) Preliminary analysis of humpback whale sighting survey data collected in Fiji, 1956–1958. Paper SC/54/H7 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Paton D, Oosterman A, Whicker M, Kenny I (2006) Preliminary assessment of sighting survey data of humpback whales, Norfolk Island, Australia. Paper SC/A06/HW36 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Reeves RR, Swartz S, Wetmore SE, Clapham PJ (2001) Historical occurrence and distribution of humpback whales in the eastern and southern Caribbean Sea, based on data from American whaling logbooks. J Cetacean Res Manag 3:117–129
Rocha RC, Clapham PJ, Ivashchenko YV (2014) Emptying the oceans: a summary of industrial whaling catches in the 20th century. Marine Fish Rev (in press)
Steel D, Garrigue C, Poole M et al (2008) Migratory connections between humpback whales from South Pacific breeding grounds and Antarctic feeding areas based on genotype matching. Paper SC/60/SH13 presented to the IWC Scientific Committee
Stevick PT, Allen J, Clapham PJ, Friday N, Katona SK, Larsen F, Lien J, Mattila DK, Palsbøll PJ, Sigurjónsson J, Smith TD, Øien N, Hammond PS (2003) North Atlantic humpback whale abundance and rate of increase four decades after protection from whaling. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 258:263–273
Swartz SL, Cole T, McDonald M, Hildebrand JA, Oleson EM, Martinez A, Clapham PJ, Barlow J, Jones ML (2003) Acoustic and visual survey of humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) distribution in the eastern and southeastern Caribbean Sea. Caribb J Mar Sci 39:195–208
Whitehead HP (1981) The behaviour and ecology of Northwest Atlantic humpback whales. Dissertation, University of Cambridge
Whitehead HP, Moore MJ (1982) Distribution and movements of West Indian humpback whales in winter. Can J Zool 60:2203–2211
Zerbini AN, Waite JM, Laake JL, Wade PR (2006) Abundance, trends and distribution of baleen whales off Western Alaska and the central Aleutian Islands. Deep Sea Res Part I Oceanogr Res Pap 53:1772–1790
Zerbini AN, Clapham PJ, Wade PR (2010) Assessing plausible rates of population growth in humpback whales from life-history data. Mar Biol 157:1225–1236
Acknowledgments
We thank Nancy Friday, Barbara Taylor, Paul Wade and two anonymous referees for helpful discussions and reviews of this paper.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by G. Pierce.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Clapham, P.J., Zerbini, A.N. Are social aggregation and temporary immigration driving high rates of increase in some Southern Hemisphere humpback whale populations?. Mar Biol 162, 625–634 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-015-2610-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-015-2610-3