Abstract
Rationale
As central 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is attenuated for a period following a single dose of MDMA (“ecstasy”) and low 5-HT is associated with aggression, then MDMA users may be more aggressive in the days following an acute dose of the drug.
Objective
This study therefore aimed to determine if acute use of MDMA is associated with aggression 4 and 7 days later.
Methods
Twenty-nine MDMA users and 32 controls were compared on self-rated aggression and depression on the night of drug use (day 0), 4 and 7 days later. On day 4, participants performed an interpretative bias task in which they processed ambiguous sentences that could be interpreted in either an aggressive or neutral way (e.g. “The painter drew the knife”).
Results
MDMA users had faster response times in completing ambiguous aggressive sentences than neutral sentences; controls showed the opposite pattern of performance. In a subsequent recognition task, MDMA users were more confident in judging, and responded faster to, aggressive than neutral sentences; controls again showed the opposite pattern of effects. The level of aggressive interpretative bias positively correlated with extent of MDMA use. Midweek, MDMA users had higher self-rated aggression and depression scores than controls; on day 7, scores of both groups were similar.
Conclusions
MDMA users display a cognitive bias towards interpreting ambiguous information in an aggressive way a few days after taking the drug. Self-rated mid-week low mood and mid-week aggression do not persist 7 days after use of the drug. This pattern of results is consistent both with the acute and residual effects of MDMA on central 5-HT and with the notion that 5-HT plays a role in modulating human aggression.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beck AT (1978) The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovitz
Bond AJ, Lader MH (1974) The use of analogue scales in rating subjective feelings. Br J Med Psychol 47:211–218
Bond AJ, Lader MH (1986) A method to elicit aggressive feelings and behaviour via provocation. Biol Psychol 22:69–79
Bond AJ, Wingrove J, Critchlow DG (2001) Tryptophan depletion increases aggression in women during the premenstrual phase. Psychopharmacology 156:477–480
Brown GL, Goodwin FK, Ballenger JC, Goyer PF, Major LF (1979) Aggression in humans correlates with cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites. Psychiatry Res 1:131–139
Buss AH, Perry M (1992) The aggression questionnaire. J Person Soc Psychol 63:452–459
Cami J, Farre M, Mas M, Roset PN, Poudevida S, Mas A, San L, de la Torre R. (2000) Human pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”): psychomotor performance and subjective effects. J Clin Psychopharmacol 20:455–466
Cleare AJ, Bond AJ (1995) The effect of tryptophan depletion and enhancement on subjective and behavioural aggression in normal male subjects. Psychopharmacology 118:72–81
Cleare AJ, Bond AJ (1997) Does central serotonergic function correlate inversely with aggression? A study using d-fenfluramine in healthy subjects. Psychiatry Res 69:89–95
Coccaro EF, Siever LJ, Klar HM, Maurer G, Cochrane K, Cooper TB, Mohs RC, Davis KL (1989) Serotonergic studies in patients with affective and personality disorders. Correlates with suicidal and impulsive aggressive behavior. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:587–599
Copello AG, Tata PR (1990) Violent behaviour and interpretative bias: an experimental study of the resolution of ambiguity in violent offenders. Br J Clin Psychol 29:417–428
Cowen PJ (1991). Serotonin receptor subtypes: implications for psychopharmacology. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 12:7–14
Curran HV (2000) Is MDMA (ecstasy) neurotoxic in humans? An overview of evidence and of methodological problems in research. Neuropsychobiology 42:34–41
Curran HV, Travill RA (1997) Mood and cognitive effects of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”): weekend “high” followed by midweek “low”. Addiction 92:821–831
Curran HV, Verheyden SL (2003) Altered response to tryptophan supplementation after long-term abstention from MDMA (“ecstasy”) is highly correlated with human memory function. Psychopharmacology 169:91–103
Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Giucastro G, Maestri D, Monica C, Sartori R, Caccavari R, Delssignore R (1998) Serotonergic function after 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”) in humans. Int Clin Pharmacol 13:1–9
Gerra G, Zaimovic A, Ampollinin R, Giusti F, Delsignore R, Raggi MA, Laviola G, Macchia T, Brambilla F (2001) Experimentally induced aggressive behaviour in subjects with 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (“ecstasy”) use history. Psychobiological correlates. J Subst Misuse 13:471–491
Goodwin GM, DeSouza RJ, Green AR (1985) Presynaptic serotonin receptor-mediated response in mice attenuated by antidepressant drugs and electroconvulsive shock. Nature 317:531–533
Green AR, Cross AJ, Goodwin GM (1995) Review of the pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ecstasy). Psychopharmacology 119:247–260
Liechti ME, Gamma A, Vollenweider FX (2001) Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA. Psychopharmacology 154:161–168
Linnoila M, Virkkunen M (1992) Biologic correlates of suicidal risk and aggressive behavioural traits. J Clin Psychopharmacol 12:19S–20S
Linnoila M, Virkkunen M, George T, Higley D (1993) Impulse control disorders. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 8:53–56
McCann UD, Ridenour A, Shaham Y, Ricaurte GA (1994) Serotonin neurotoxicity after (±)3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; “ecstasy”): a controlled study in humans Neuropsychopharmacology 10:129–138
McKenna DJ, Peroutka SJ (1990) Neurochemistry and neurotoxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “ecstasy”) J Neurochem 541:14–22
Morgan MJ (1998) Recreational use of ecstasy (MDMA) is associated with elevated impulsivity. Neuropsychopharmacology 19:252–264
Novaco RW (1978) Anger and coping with stress: Cognitive behavioural intervention. In: Foreyt JP, Rathjen P (eds) Cognitive behavioural therapy: research and application. Plenum Press, New York/London
Parrott AC, Lasky J (1998) Ecstasy (MDMA) effects upon mood and cognition: before, during and after a Saturday night dance. Psychopharmacology 139:261–268
Rattray M (1991) Ecstasy: towards an understanding of the biochemical basis of the actions of MDMA. Essays Biochem 26:77–87
Schmidt C J, Wu L, Lovenberg W (1986) Methylenedioxymethamphetamine: a potentially neurotoxic amphetamine analogue. Eur J Pharmacol 124:175–178
Smith KA, Fairburn CG, Cowen PJ (1997) Relapse of depression after rapid depletion of tryptophan. Lancet 349:915–919
Solowij N, Hall W, Lee N (1992) Recreational MDMA use in Sydney: a profile of “ecstasy” users and their experiences with the drug. Br J Addict 87:1161–1172
Verheyden SL, Hadfield J, Calin T, Curran HV (2002) Sub-acute effects of MDMA (3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine, “ecstasy”) on mood: evidence of gender differences. Psychopharmacology 161:23–31
Vollenweider FX, Gamma A, Liechti M, Huber T (1998). Psychological and cardiovascular effects and short-term sequelae of MDMA (“ecstasy”) in MDMA-naive healthy volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology 19:241–251
Young SN, Leyton M (2002) The role of serotonin in human mood and social interaction: insight from altered tryptophan levels. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 71:857–865
Zigmond AS, Snaith RP (1983) The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Acta Psychiatr Scand 67:361–370
Acknowledgements
None of the authors have any interest, financial or otherwise, that might potentially bias their work. We thank Dr. Suzanne Verheyden for comments on an earlier draft of this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Curran, H.V., Rees, H., Hoare, T. et al. Empathy and aggression: two faces of ecstasy? A study of interpretative cognitive bias and mood change in ecstasy users. Psychopharmacology 173, 425–433 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-003-1713-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-003-1713-6