Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cross laminated timber (CLT): overview and development

  • Original
  • Published:
European Journal of Wood and Wood Products Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Cross laminated timber (CLT) has become a well-known engineered timber product of global interest. The orthogonal, laminar structure allows its application as a full-size wall and floor element as well as a linear timber member, able to bear loads in- and out-of-plane. This article provides a state-of-the-art report on some selected topics related to CLT, in particular production and technology, characteristic material properties, design and connections. Making use of general information concerning the product’s development and global market, the state of knowledge is briefly outlined, including the newest findings and related references for background information. In view of ongoing global activities, a significant rise in production volume within the next decade is expected. Prerequisites for the establishment of a solid timber construction system using CLT are (1) standards comprising the product, testing and design, (2) harmonized load-bearing models for calculating CLT properties based on the properties of the base material board, enabling relatively fast use of local timber species and qualities, and (3) the development of CLT adequate connection systems for economic assembling and an increasing degree of utilization regarding the load-bearing potential of CLT elements in the joints. The establishment of a worldwide harmonized package of standards is recommended as this would broaden the fields of application for timber engineering and strengthen CLT in competition with solid-mineral based building materials.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abrahamsen RB (2013) Bergen im Holzbaufieber–der wohl erste 14 Geschosser [Bergen in timber fever—the first 14 story building]. In: 19. Internationales Holzbau-Forum IHF 2013, Garmisch-Partenkirchen (in German)

  • Andreolli M, Rigamonti MA, Tomasi R (2014) Diagonal compression test on cross laminated timber panels. In: 13th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014), Quebec

  • Blaß HJ, Flaig M (2012) Stabförmige Bauteile aus Brettsperrholz [Beams made of cross laminated timber]. Karlsruher Berichte zum Ingenieurholzbau, Universitätsverlag Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Blaß HJ, Görlacher R (2002) Zum Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Brettsperrholz-Elementen bei Beanspruchung in Plattenebene: Teil 2 [Contribution to the deformation behavior of cross laminated timber elements in-plane: Part 2]. Bauen mit Holz 12:30–34 (in German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogensperger T (2013) Darstellung und praxistaugliche Aufbereitung für die Ermittlung mitwirkender Plattenbreiten von BSP-Elementen [Description and practicable rules for determination of the effective width of rib floors as composite of CLT and GLT]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz (in German)

  • Bogensperger T (2014a) Punktgestützte Platten aus Brettsperrholz [Concentrated loads on CLT plates]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz (in German, in progress)

  • Bogensperger T (2014b) Lasteinleitung in Wandscheiben aus Brettsperrholz [Concentrated loads on CLT walls]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz (in German)

  • Bogensperger T, Moosbrugger T, Schickhofer G (2007) New test configuration for CLT‐wall‐elements under shear load. In: 40th CIB-W18 Meeting, Bled

  • Bogensperger T, Moosbrugger T, Silly G (2010) Verification of CLT-plates under loads in plane. In: 11th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE2010), Riva del Garda

  • Bogensperger T, Augustin M, Schickhofer G (2011) Properties of CLT-panels exposed to compression perpendicular to their plane. In: 44th CIB-W18 Meeting, Alghero

  • Bogensperger T, Silly G, Schickhofer G (2012) Comparison of methods of approximate verification procedures for cross laminated timber. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz

  • Bosl R (2002) Zum Nachweis des Trag‐ und Verformungsverhaltens von Wandscheiben aus Brettsperrholz [Contribution to the load and displacement behavior of cross laminated timber diaphragms]. Dissertation, Military University Munich (in German)

  • Brandner R (2013) Production and technology of cross laminated timber (CLT): a state-of-the-art report. In: Harris R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (eds) Focus solid timber solutions—European conference on cross laminated timber (CLT). The University of Bath, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandner R, Schickhofer G (2006) System effects of structural elements—determined for bending and tension. In: 9th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2006), Portland

  • Brandner R, Schickhofer G (2008) Glued laminated timber in bending: new aspects concerning modelling. Wood Sci Technol 42(5):401–425

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brandner R, Schickhofer G (2014) Properties of cross laminated timber (CLT) in compression perpendicular to grain. In: 1st INTER-Meeting, Bath

  • Brandner R, Bogensperger T, Schickhofer G (2013) In plane shear strength of cross laminated timber (CLT): test configuration, quantification and influencing parameters. In: 46th CIB‐W18 Meeting, Vancouver

  • Brandner R, Dietsch P, Dröscher J, Schulte-Wrede M, Kreuzinger H, Sieder M, Schickhofer G, Winter S (2015) Shear properties of cross laminated timber (CLT) under in-plane load: Test configuration and experimental study. In: 2nd INTER-Meeting, Sibenik

  • Bratulic K, Flatscher G, Brandner R (2014) Monotonic and cyclic behaviour of joints with self-tapping screws in CLT structures. In: Schober KU (ed) COST action FP1004: experimental research with timber. The University of Bath, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Ceccotti A, Lauriola MP, Pinna M, Sandhaas C (2006a) SOFIE Project—cyclic tests on cross-laminated wooden panels. In: 9th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE2006), Portland

  • Ceccotti A, Follesa M, Lauriola MP, Sandhaas C, Minowa C, Kawai N, Yasumura M (2006b) Which seismic behaviour factor for multi-storey buildings made of cross-laminated wooden panels? In: 39th CIB-W18 Meeting, Florence

  • Ciampitti A (2013) Untersuchung ausgewählter Einflussparameter auf die Querdruckkenngrößen von Brettsperrholz [Investigations on selected influencing parameters on the mechanical properties in compression perpendicular to the grain of cross laminated timber]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Colling F (1990) Tragfähigkeit von Biegeträgern aus Brettschichtholz in Abhängigkeit von den festigkeitsrelevanten Einflussgrößen [Bearing capacity of glulam in bending in dependency on strength relevant characteristics]. Karlsruher Berichte zum Ingenieurholzbau, Universitätsverlag Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Cziesielski E (1974) Hölzerne Dachflächentragwerke [Shell structures for timber roofs]. In: Halasz R and Scheer C (eds) Holzbau-Taschenbuch, Band 1: Grundlagen, Entwurf und Konstruktionen. 7., neu bearbeitete Auflage. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin (in German)

  • DIN EN 1995-1-1/NA (2010) National Annex—Nationally determined parameters—Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures—Part 1-1: General—Common rules and rules for buildings. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e. V

  • Dröge G, Stoy KH (1981) Grundzüge des neuzeitlichen Holzbaues: Konstruktionselemente, Berechnung und Ausführung [Basics of contemporary timber engineering: construction elements, design and execution], vol 1. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin (in German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Dujic B, Aicher S, Zarnic R (2005) Racking of wooden walls exposed to different boundary conditions. In: 38th CIB-W18 Meeting, Stuttgart

  • Dujic B, Klobcar S, Zarnic R (2007) Influence of openings on shear capacity of wooden walls. In: 40th CIB-W18 Meeting, Bled, Slovenia

  • Ehrhart T, Brandner R, Schickhofer G, Frangi A (2015) Rolling shear properties of some European timber species with focus on cross laminated timber (CLT): test configuration and parameter study. In: 2nd INTER-Meeting, Sibenik

  • EN 13986 (2002) Wood-based panels for use in construction—characteristics, evaluation of conformity and marking. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 14080 (2013) Timber structures—glued laminated timber and glued solid timber—requirements. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 16351 (2014) Timber structures—cross laminated timber—requirements. Draft version, European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 1995-1-1 (2009) Eurocode 5: design of timber structures—part 1-1: general—common rules and rules for buildings. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 1995-1-2 (2006) Eurocode 5: design of timber structures—part 1-2: general—structural fire design. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 1998-1:2004 +AC +A1 (2013) Eurocode 8: design of structures for earthquake resistance—part 1: general rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 338 (2009) Structural timber—strength classes. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • EN 384 (2010) Structural timber—determination of characteristic values of mechanical properties and density. European Committee for Standardization (CEN)

  • Flaig M (2013) Biegeträger aus Brettsperrholz bei Beanspruchung in Plattenebene [Beams made of cross laminated timber subjected to bending in-plane]. Karlsruher Berichte zum Ingenieurholzbau, Universitätsverlag Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Flaig M (2014) Design of CLT beams with rectangular holes or notches. In: 1st INTER Meeting, Bath

  • Flaig M (2015) Design of CLT beams with large finger joints at different angles. In: 2nd INTER Meeting, Sibenik

  • Flaig M, Blaß HJ (2013) Shear strength and shear stiffness of CLT‐beams loaded in plane. In: 46th CIB‐W18 Meeting, Vancouver

  • Flatscher G, Schickhofer G (2015) Shaking table test of a cross-laminated timber structure. ICE J Struct Build 168(11):878–888

    Google Scholar 

  • Flatscher G, Bratulic K, Schickhofer G (2014a) Experimental tests on cross-laminated timber joints and walls. ICE J Struct Build. doi:10.1680/stbu.13.00085

    Google Scholar 

  • Flatscher G, Bratulic K, Schickhofer G (2014b) Screwed joints in cross-laminated timber structures. In: 13th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014), Quebec

  • Follesa M, Fragiacomo M, Lauriola MP (2011) A proposal for revision of the current timber part (Section 8) of Eurocode 8 Part 1. In: 44th CIB-W18 Meeting, Alghero

  • Frangi A, Fontana M, Hugi E, Jöbstl RA (2009) Experimental analysis of cross-laminated timber panels in fire. Fire Saf J 44(8):1078–1087

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gagnon S, Pirvu C (eds., 2011) CLT Handbook: cross-laminated timber. Canadian Edition. ISBN:978-0-86488-547-0

  • Gavric I, Fragiacomo M, Ceccotti A (2014) Cyclic behaviour of typical metal connectors for cross-laminated (CLT) structures. Mater Struct. doi:10.1617/s11527-014-0278-7

    Google Scholar 

  • Gavric I, Fragiacomo M, Ceccotti A (2015a) Cyclic behaviour of typical screwed connections for cross-laminated (CLT) structures. Eur J Wood Prod 73(2):179–191

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gavric I, Fragiacomo M, Ceccotti A (2015b) Cyclic behaviour of CLT wall systems: Experimental tests and analytical prediction models. J Struct Eng. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001246

    Google Scholar 

  • Görlacher R (2002) Ein Verfahren zur Ermittlung des Rollschubmoduls von Holz [A method for determining the rolling shear modulus of timber]. Holz Roh Werkst 60:317–322 (in German)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grabner M (2013) Einflussparameter auf den Ausziehwiderstand selbstbohrender Holzschrauben in BSP-Schmalflächen [Influencing effects on the withdrawal resistance of self-tapping screws in the narrow faces of CLT]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Gülzow A (2008) Zerstörungsfreie Bestimmung der Biegesteifigkeiten von Brettsperrholzplatten [Non-destructive determination of bending stiffnesses of cross lamanted timber elements]. Dissertation, ETH Zurich (in German)

  • Guttmann E (2008) Brettsperrholz: Ein Produktporträt [Cross laminated timber: a product profile]. Zuschnitt 31:12–14 (in German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Halili Y (2008) Versuchstechnische Ermittlung von Querdruckkenngrößen für Brettsperrholz [Experimental determination of compression perpendicular to grain properties of cross laminated timber]. Diploma thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Hamm P, Richter A, Winter S (2010) Floor vibrations—new results. 11th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE2010), Riva del Garda

  • Harris R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (2013) Focus solid timber solutions—European conference on cross laminated timber (CLT). The University of Bath, Bath

  • Hirschmann B (2011) Ein Beitrag zur Bestimmung der Scheibenschubfestigkeit von Brettsperrholz [A contribution to the determination of in-plane shear strength of cross laminated timber]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Hochreiner G, Füssl J, Eberhardsteiner J (2013) Cross-laminated timber plates subjected to concentrated loading—experimental identification of failure mechanisms. Strain 50(1):68–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hochreiner G, Füssl J, Serrano E, Eberhardsteiner J (2014) Influence of wooden board strength class on the performance of cross-laminated timber plates investigated by means of full-field deformation measurements. Strain 50(2):161–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hummel J, Flatscher G, Seim W, Schickhofer G (2013) CLT wall elements under cyclic loading—details for anchorage and connection. In: Harris R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (eds) COST Action FP1004: focus solid timber solutions—European conference on cross laminated timber (CLT). The University of Bath, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Jakobs A (2005) Zur Berechnung von Brettlagenholz mit starrem und nachgiebigem Verbund unter plattenartiger Belastung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Rollschubes und der Drillweichheit [Calculation of laminar laminated timber as rigid and flexible composite loaded out-of-plane with particular consideration of rolling shear and twisting]. Dissertation, Universität der Bundeswehr (in German)

  • Jeitler G (2004) Versuchstechnische Ermittlung der Verdrehungskenngrößen von orthogonal verklebten Brettlamellen [Experimental determination of torsion properties of orthogonally bonded board segments]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Jeitler G, Brandner R (2008) Modellbildung für DUO-, TRIO- und QUATTRO-Querschnitte [Modelling of DUO-, TRIO- and QUATTRO-beams]. In: Schickhofer G, Brandner R (eds) 7. Grazer Holzbau-Fachtagung (7.GraHFT’08): Modellbildung für Produkte und Konstruktionen aus Holz – Bedeutung von Simulation und Experiment. Verlag der Technischen Universität Graz, Graz (in German)

  • Jöbstl RA, Schickhofer G (2007) Comparative examination of creep of GLT and CLT slabs in bending. In: 40th CIB-W18 Meeting, Bled

  • Jöbstl RA, Bogensperger T, Schickhofer G, Jeitler G (2004) Mechanical behaviour of two orthogonally glued boards. In: 8th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2004), Lahti

  • Jöbstl RA, Bogensperger T, Moosbrugger T, Schickhofer G (2006) A contribution to the design and system effect of cross laminated timber (CLT). In: 39th CIB-W18 Meeting, Florence

  • Jöbstl RA, Bogensperger T, Schickhofer G (2008) In-plane shear strength of cross laminated timber. In: 41st CIB-W18 Meeting, St. Andrews

  • Kairi M (2002) Chapter 4.4: Glued/screwed joints/screw glued wooden structures. In: Johansson CJ, Pizzi T, Leemput MV (eds) COST Action E13 “wood adhesion and glued products”, working group 2: glued wood products: state of the art report, 2nd edn. ISBN:92-894-4892-X

  • Karacabeyli E, Douglas B (2013) CLT Handbook: cross-laminated timber. US Edition, ISBN 978-0-86488-553-1

  • Kawai N, Tsuchimoto T, Tsuda C, Murakami S, Miura S, Isoda H, Miyake T (2014) Lateral loading tests on CLT shear walls by assembly of narrow panels and by a large panel with an opening. In: 13th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014), Quebec

  • Kennedy S, Selenikovich A, Munoz W, Mohammad M (2014) Design equations for dowel embedment strength and withdrawal resistance for threaded fasteners in CLT. In: 13th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014), Quebec

  • Klippel M (2014) Fire safety of bonded structural timber elements. Dissertation, ETH Zurich

  • Klippel M, Schmid J, Frangi A, Fink G (2014) Fire Design of glued-laminated timber beams with regard to the adhesive performance using the reduced cross-section method. In: 1st INTER-Meeting, Bath

  • Konnerth J, Valla A, Gindl W, Müller U (2006) Measurement of strain distribution in timber finger joints. Wood Sci Technol 40(8):631–636

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kraler A, Kögl J, Maderebner R (2014) Sherpa-CLT-Connector for cross laminated timber (CLT) elements. In: 13th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014), Quebec

  • Kreuzinger H (1999) Flächentragwerke—Platten, Scheiben und Schalen—Berechnungsmethoden und Beispiele [Plane load-bearing structures—plates loaded in- and out-of-plane and shells—calculation methods and examples]. Fachverlag Holz, Dusseldorf (in German)

  • Kreuzinger H (2000) Verbundkonstruktionen aus nachgiebig miteinander verbundenen Querschnittsteilen [Composite structures of flexible connected cross-sections]. Ingenieurholzbau Karlsruher Tage. Bruderverlag Karlsruhe, pp 43–55, (in German)

  • Kreuzinger H (2002) Verbundkonstruktionen [Composite structures]. Holzbaukalender 2002. Bruderverlag, Karlsruhe, pp 598–621 (in German)

  • Kreuzinger H, Scholz S (2001) Schubtragverhalten von Brettsperrholz [Shear behavior in cross laminated timber]. Research report, Technische Universität München, Munich (in German)

  • Kreuzinger H, Sieder M (2013) Einfaches Prüfverfahren zur Bewertung der Schubfestigkeit von Kreuzlagenholz/Brettsperrholz [Simple test setup for assessment of shear strength of cross laminated timber]. Bautechnik 90(5):314–316 (in German)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lischke N (1985) Zur Anisotropie von Verbundwerkstoffen am Beispiel von Brettlagenholz [Regarding the anisotropy of composite products exemplarily for laminar laminated timber]. VDI, ISBN 978-3181498057 (in German)

  • Mahlknecht U, Brandner R (2013) Untersuchungen des mechanischen Verhaltens von Schrauben—Verbindungsmittelgruppen in VH, BSH und BSP [Investigations concerning the mechanical behavior of screwed connections in ST, GLT and CLT]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz (in German)

  • Mahlknecht U, Brandner R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (2014) Resistance and fairue modes of axially loaded groups of screws. In: Aicher S, Reinhardt HW, Garrecht H (eds) Materials and joints in timber structures, RILEM Book series 9. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7811-5_27

  • Mestek P (2011) Punktgestützte Flächentragwerke aus Brettsperrholz (BSP)—Schubbemessung unter Berücksichtigung von Schubverstärkungen [Cross laminated timber (CLT) plane structures under concentrated loading from point supports—shear design including reinforcements]. Dissertation, Technische Universität München, Munich (in German)

  • Möhler K (1962) Über das Tragverhalten von Biegeträgern und Druckstäben mit zusammengesetzten Querschnitten und nachgiebigen Verbindungsmitteln [About the load bearing capacity of beams in bending and bars in compression with composite cross sections and flexible connections]. Habilitation, TH Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Möhler K (1966) Die Bemessung der Verbindungsmittel bei zusammengesetzten Biege- und Druckgliedern im Holzbau [Design of connections for composite beam and bar cross sections]. Bauen mit Holz 68:162–164 (in German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Moser K (1995) Dickholz durch Vakuum [Dickholz through vacuum]. Bauen mit Holz 11:941–947 (in German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz W, Mohammad M, Gagnon S (2010) Lateral and withdrawal resistance of typical CLT connections. 11th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2010), Riva del Garda, Italy

  • ÖNORM B 1995-1-1 (2014) Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures—part 1-1: general—common rules and rules for buildings—national specifications, national comments and national supplements concerning ÖNORM EN 1995-1-1. Austrian Standards Institute (ASI)

  • Plackner H (2014) Nicht mehr wegzudenken—Massivholz hat sich den Platz geschaffen [Undisputable—solid timber has created its market]. Holzkurier BSP Special 4–5:2014 (German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Plüss Y, Brandner R (2014) Untersuchungen zum Tragverhalten von axial beanspruchten Schraubengruppen in der Schmalseite von Brettsperrholz (BSP) [Investigations concerning the bearing behaviour of axially loaded screw groups in the narrow face of cross laminated timber (CLT)]. In: 20. Internationales Holzbau-Forum IHF 2014, Garmisch-Partenkirchen (in German)

  • Polastri A, Angeli A, Gianni DR (2014) A new construction system for CLT structures. In: 13th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2014), Quebec

  • Rattasepp T, Mang HA (1989) Zur Stabilität flacher eckgestützter Hyparschalen aus Holz mit geradlinigen Randträgern [Regarding stability of flat edge supported hypar shells in timber with straight-lined edge girders]. Bauingenieur 64:255–266 (in German)

    Google Scholar 

  • Ringhofer A, Ehrhart T, Brandner R, Schickhofer G (2013) Prüftechnische Ermittlung weiterer Einflussparameter auf das Tragverhalten der Einzelschraube in der BSP-Seitenfläche [Experimental determination of further influencing parameters on the load bearing behaviour of single screws placed in the side face of CLT]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz (in German)

  • Ringhofer A, Brandner R, Schickhofer G (2015a) Withdrawal resistance of self-tapping screws in unidirectional and orthogonal layered timber products. Mater Struct 48:1435–1447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ringhofer A, Brandner R, Schickhofer G (2015b) A universal approach for withdrawal properties of self-tapping screws in solid timber and laminated timber products. In: 2nd INTER-Meeting, Šibenik

  • Salzmann C (2010) Ermittlung von Querdruckkenngrößen für Brettsperrholz (BSP) [Determination of compression perpendicular to grain properties of cross laminated timber (CLT)]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Schelling W (1968) Die Berechnung nachgiebig verbundener zusammengesetzter Biegeträger im Ingenieurholzbau [The calculation of flexible connected composite beams in timber engineering]. Dissertation, TH Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Schelling W (1982) Zur Berechnung nachgiebig zusammengesetzter Biegeträger aus beliebig vielen Einzelquerschnitten [The calculation of flexible connected composite beams of an arbitrary number of cross sections]. In: Ehlbeck J, Steck G (eds) Ingenieurholzbau in Forschung und Praxis. Bruderverlag, Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Schickhofer G (1994) Starrer und nachgiebiger Verbund bei geschichteten, flächenhaften Holzstrukturen [Rigid and Flexible Composite Action of Laminated Timber Structures]. Dissertation, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Schickhofer G (2015) CLT—European experience: idea & development, technology & applications. In: Presentation, CLT Seminar, Kochi, Japan, 5th February 2015

  • Schickhofer G, Hasewend B (2000) Solid timber construction: a construction system for residential houses, offices and industrial buildings. In: Ceccotti A, Thelandersson S (eds) Cost Action E5—proceedings of timber frame building systems: Seismic behavior of timber buildings, timber construction in the new millennium, Venice

  • Schickhofer G, Bogensperger T, Moosbrugger T (eds., 2010) BSPhandbuch: Holz-Massivbauweise in Brettsperrholz—Nachweise auf Basis des neuen europäischen Normenkonzepts [CLThandbook: solid timber construction technique with cross laminated timber—verification based on the new European standardization concept]. Verlag der Technischen Universität Graz, Graz (in German)

  • Schmid J, König J, Köhler J (2010) Fire exposed cross laminated timber—modeling and tests. In: 11th World Conference of Timber Engineering (WCTE 2010), Riva di Garda

  • Schneider J, Karacabeyli E, Popovski M, Stiemer SF, Tesfamariam S (2014) Damage assessment of connections used in cross-laminated timber subject to cyclic loads. J Perform Constr Facil. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000528

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholz A (2004) Ein Beitrag zur Berechnung von Flächentragwerken aus Holz [A contribution for calculation of spatial timber structures]. Dissertation, Technische Universität München (in German)

  • Seim W, Hummel J, Vogt T (2014) Earthquake design of timber structures—remarks on force-based design procedures for different wall systems. Eng Struct 76:124–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano E, Enquist B (2010) Compression strength perpendicular to grain in cross-laminated timber (CLT). In: 11th World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE 2010), Riva del Garda

  • Silva C, Ringhofer A, Branco JM, Lourenco PB, Schickhofer G (2014) Influence of moisture content and gaps on the withdrawal resistance of self-tapping screws in CLT. In: 9th Congresso Nacional de Mecânica Experimental, Aveiro

  • Steurer A (1989) Entwurfsgrundlagen und Konstruktionsprinzipien von Holzstegen [Design pronciples and construction pronciples of pedestrian timber bridges]. 21. Fortbildungskurs der Schweizerische Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Holzforschung (SAH) “Brücken und Stege aus Holz”, Zurich (in German)

  • Sustersic I, Dujic B (2012) Simplified cross-laminated timber wall modelling for linear-elastic seismic analysis. In: 45th CIB-W18 Meeting, Växjö

  • Thiel A (2013) ULS and SLS design of CLT and its implementation in the CLTdesigner. In: Harris R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (eds) Focus solid timber solutions—European conference on cross laminated timber (CLT). The University of Bath, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiel A, Schickhofer G (2012) Design methods of cross laminated timber concerning floor vibrations: a comparability study. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz

  • Thiel A, Augustin M, Bogensperger T (2015) Stabilitätsuntersuchungen von BSP [Stability problems of CLT structures]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Austria (in German, in progress)

  • Timoshenko SP (1921) On the correction factor for shear of the differential equation for transverse vibrations of bars of uniform cross-section. Phil Mag 41:744–746

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Timoshenko SP (1922) On the transverse vibrations of bars of uniform cross-section. Phil Mag 43:125–131

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomasi R, Smith I (2014) Experimental characterization of monotonic and cyclic loading responses of CLT panel-to-foundation angle bracket connections. J Mater Civil Eng 27:04014189. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uibel T, Blaß HJ (2013) Joints with dowel type fasteners in CLT structures. In: Harris R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (eds) COST Action FP1004: focus solid timber solutions—European conference on cross laminated timber (CLT). The University of Bath, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Unterwieser H, Schickhofer G (2013) Characteristic values and test configurations of CLT with focus on selected properties. In: Harris R, Ringhofer A, Schickhofer G (eds) Focus solid timber solutions—European conference on cross laminated timber (CLT). The University of Bath, Bath

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallner G (2004) Versuchstechnische Ermittlung der Verschiebungskenngrößen von orthogonal verklebten Brettlamellen [Experimental determination of displacement properties from two orthogonally bonded board segments]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Wallner-Novak M, Koppelhuber J, Pock K (2013) Brettsperrholz Bemessung—Grundlagen für Statik und Konstruktion nach Eurocode [Cross-laminated timber structural design—basic design and engineering principles according to Eurocode]. proHolzAustria, Vienna (in German)

  • Winter S, Hamm P, Richter A (2010) Schwingungs- und Dämpfungsverhalten von Holz- und Holz-Beton-Verbunddecken [Vibration and damping behaviour of timber- and timber-concrete composite slabs]. Final Research Report, Technische Universität München (in German)

  • Blaß HJ, Uibel T (2007) Tragfähigkeit von stiftförmigen Verbindungsmitteln in Brettsperrholz [Load carrying capacity of joints with dowel type fasteners in solid wood panels]. Karlsruher Berichte zum Ingenieurholzbau, Universitätsverlag Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe (in German)

  • Zimmer S (2013) Ein Beitrag zur Aufarbeitung der Schwingungsthematik für die Holz-Massivbauweise in Brettsperrholz [A Contribution to the subject of vibrations in solid timber construction with CLT]. Master’s thesis, Graz University of Technology (in German)

  • Zimmer S (2014) Bestimmung der Schwingungseigenschaften von BSP-Elementen durch in situ Messungen [Determination of the vibration characteristics of CLT elements by in situ measurements]. Research Report, holz.bau forschungs gmbh, Graz (in German)

Download references

Acknowledgments

The research work was conducted at the Institute of Timber Engineering and Wood Technology at the Graz University of Technology as well as at the Competence Centre Holz.Bau Forschungs GmbH in the framework of the COMET K-Project “focus solid timber solutions (focus_sts)”. We would like to express our thanks to all partners involved. The publication was written in the framework of the COST Action FP1004 “Enhance mechanical properties of timber, engineered wood products and timber structures”, chaired by Richard Harris, University of Bath.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Timber Engineering and Wood Technology, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 24/I, 8010, Graz, Austria

    R. Brandner, G. Flatscher, A. Ringhofer & G. Schickhofer

  2. Competence Centre Holz.Bau Forschungs GmbH, Inffeldgasse 24/I, 8010, Graz, Austria

    A. Thiel

Authors
  1. R. Brandner
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. G. Flatscher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. A. Ringhofer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. G. Schickhofer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. A. Thiel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. Brandner.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Brandner, R., Flatscher, G., Ringhofer, A. et al. Cross laminated timber (CLT): overview and development. Eur. J. Wood Prod. 74, 331–351 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-015-0999-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00107-015-0999-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation