Abstract
Increasing the “truth per dollar” of money spent on science is one legitimate long-run goal of the economics of science. But before this goal can be achieved, we need to increase our knowledge of the successes and failures of past and current reward structures of science. This essay reviews what economists have learned about the behavior of scientists and the reward structure of science. One important use of such knowledge will be to help policy-makers create a reward structure that is more efficient in the future.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramovitz, M. (1956). Resource and Output Trends in the United States since 1870.American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 46 (May):5–23.
Ackermann, R.J. (1985).Data, Instruments and Theory. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Acs, Z.J., D.B. Audretsch and M.P. Feldman (1992). Real Effects of Academic Research: Comment.The American Economic Review 82:1 (March):363–367.
Adams, J.D. (1990). Fundamental Stocks of Knowledge and Productivity Growth.Journal of Political Economy 98:4 (August):673–702.
— (1993). Science, R&D, and Invention Potential Recharge: U.S. Evidence.The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 83:2 (May):458–462.
Alchian, A.A. (1977). Private Property and the Relative Cost of Tenure. In:Economic Forces at Work. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1977 (essay originally published in Philip D. Bradley [ed.],The Public Stake in Union Power. Charlottesville, VA: The University Press of Virginia, 1958, pp. 350–371).
Anderson, G.M. and R.D. Tollison (1986). Dead Men Tell No Tales.The History of Economics Society Bulletin 8 (Summer):59–68.
Arrow, K.J. (1962). Economic Welfare and the Allocation of Resources for Inventions. In:The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors, R.R. Nelson (ed.), National Bureau of Economic Research. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 609–625.
Arrow, K.J. and W.M. Capron (1959). Dynamic Shortages and Price Rises: The Engineer-Scientist Case.The Quarterly Journal of Economics 73:2 (May):292–308.
Ault, D.E., G.L. Rutman and T. Stevenson (1979). Mobility in the Labor Market for Academic Economists.The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 69:2 (May):148–153.
— (1982). Some Factors Affecting Mobility in the Labor Market for Academic Economists.Economic Inquiry 20 (January):104–132.
Bailey, D. and C. Schotta (1972). Private and Social Rates of Return to Education of Academicians.The American Economic Review 62:1 (March):19–31.
Banerjee, A. (1992). A Simple Model of Herd BehaviorThe Quarterly Journal of Economics 107:3 (October):797–817.
Bartley, W.W. III (1990).Unfathomed Knowledge, Unmeasured Wealth: On Universities and the Wealth of Nations. La Salle, Ill.: Open Court.
Bayless, M. (1982). The Influence of Location on Faculty Salaries at Major Universities.Nebraska Journal of Economics and Business 21:2 (Spring):39–65.
Becker, G.S. (1975).Human Capital. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1st ed., 1964.
Becker, W.E., Jr. (1979). Professional Behavior Given a Stochastic Reward Structure.American Economic Review 69 (December):1010–1017.
— (1975). The University Professor as a Utility Maximizer and Producer of Learning, Research, and Income.Journal of Human Resources 10:107–115.
Biagioli, M. (1994).Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Biddle, J. and K. Roberts (1994). Private Sector Scientists and Engineers and the Transition to Management.Journal of Human Resources 29:1 (Winter):82–107.
Bikhchandani, S., D. Hirschleifer, and I. Welch (1992). A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades.Journal of Political Economy 100:5 (October):992–1026.
Blank, D.M. and G.J. Stigler, (1957).The Demand and Supply of Scientific Personnel. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Blank, R.M. (1991). The Effects of Double-Blind versus Single-Blind Reviewing: Experimental Evidence from.The American Economic Review. 81:5 (December):1041–1067.
Bowen, W.G. and J.A. Sosa (1987).Prospects for Faculty in the Arts and Sciences: A Study of Factors Affecting Demand and Supply, 1987 to 2012. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Boyes, W.J. and S.K. Happel (1989). Auctions as an Allocation Mechanism in Academia: The Case of Faculty Offices.The Journal of Economic Perspectives 3:3 (Summer):37–40.
Braddock, D.J. (1992). Scientific and Technical Occupations: 1990–2005.Monthly Labor Review 115:2 (February):28–41.
Brennan, H.G. and R.D. Tollison (1980). Rent Seeking in Academia. In:Toward, a Theory of the Rent-Seeking Society, J.M. Buchanan, R.D. Tollison, and G. Tullock (eds.). College Station, Texas: Texas A & M University Press, pp. 345–356.
Brenner, R. (1987).Rivalry: In Business, Science, Among Nations. Cambridge, Mass.: Cambridge University Press.
Brezis, E.J., P.R. Krugman, and D. Tsiddon (1993). Leapfrogging in International Competition: A Theory of Cycles in National Technological Leadership.The American Economic Review 83:5 (December):1211–1219.
Broder, I.E. (1993). Review of NSF Economics Proposals: Gender and Institutional Patterns.The American Economic Review, 83:4 (September):964–970.
Browne, M.J. and J.S. Trieschmann (1991). Salary and Benefit Compensation at American Research Universities.The Journal of Risk and Insurance 58:3 (September):513–524.
Buchanan, J.M. (1965). An Economic Theory of Clubs.Economica 32 (February):1–14.
Busch, L., W.B. Lacy, J. Burkhardt, and L.R. Lacy (eds) (1991).Plants, Power, and Profit: Social, Economic, and Ethical Consequences of the New Biotechnologies. Cambridge, Mass.: Basil Blackwell, Inc.
Camerer, C., G. Loewenstein, and M. Weber (1989). The Curse of Knowledge in Economic Settings: An Experimental Analysis.Journal of Political Economy 97:5 (October):1232–1254.
Carmichael, H.L. (1988). Incentives in Academics: Why is there Tenure?Journal of Political Economy 96:3 (June):453–472.
Chubin, D.E. (1990). Scientific Malpractice and the Contemporary Politics of Knowledge. In:Theories of Science in Society. S.E. Cozzens and T.F. Gieryn (eds.), pp. 144–163. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
Cohn, E. (1973). Factors Affecting Variations in Faculty Salaries and Compensation in Institutions of Higher Education,Journal of Higher Education 44:2 (February):124–136.
Colander, D. (1989a). Money and the Spread of Ideas. InThe Spread of Economic Ideas, D. Colander and A.W. Coats (eds.), pp. 229–234. New York: Cambridge University Press.
— (1989b). Research on the Economics Profession.Journal of Economic Perspectives 3:4 (Fall):137–148.
Cole, J.R. and S. Cole (1973).Social Stratification in Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cole, S., J.R. Cole and G.A. Simon (1981). Chance and Consensus in Peer Review.Science 214 (November):881–886.
Coleman, J.S. (1993). Letter toRationality and Society subscribers, December 10.
Coughlin, E.K. (1992). Sociologists Confront Questions about Field's Vitality and Direction.The Chronicle of Higher Education 38:49 (August):A6-A8.
Cozzens, S.E. (1990). Autonomy and Power in Science. In:Theories of Science in Society, S.E. Cozzens, and T.F. Gieryn (eds.), pp. 164–184. Bloomington, Ind., Indiana University Press.
Cozzens, S.E. and T.F. Gieryn (1990).Theories of Science in Society. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
Culyer, A.J. (1970). A Utility-Maximising View of Universities.Scottish Journal of Political Economy 17:3 (November): 349–368.
Dasgupta, P. and P. A. David (1994). Toward a New Economics of Science.Research Policy 23:5 (September): 487–522.
Diamond, A.M., Jr. (1993a). The Career Consequences of the Acceptance of a Mistaken Research Project. Working paper.
—, Jr. (1994a). The Determinants of a Scientist's Choice of Research Projects. In:Scientific Failure, T. Horowitz and A.I. Janis (eds.), pp. 167–210. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
—, Jr. (1994b). Economic Explanations of the Behaviour of Universities and Scholars.Journal of Economic Studies 20 (4/5):107–133.
—, Jr. (1984). An Economic Model of the Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Scientists.Scientometrics 6 (May): 189–196.
—, Jr. (1988a). The Empirical Progressiveness of the General Equilibrium Research Program.History of Political Economy 20:1 (Spring):119–135.
—, Jr. (1986a). The Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Mathematicians and Scientists.The Journal of Gerontology 41:4 (July):520–525.
—, Jr. (1985). The Money Value of Citations to Single-Authored and Multiple-Authored Articles.Scientometrics 8 (5/6):315–320.
—, Jr. (1989). Most-Cited Economics Papers and Current Research Fronts.Current Contents 21:2 (January):3–8.
—, Jr. (1987). An Optimal Control Model of the Life-Cycle Research Productivity of Scientists.Scientometrics 11 (3/4):247–249.
—, Jr. (1988b). The Polywater Episode and the Appraisal of Theories. In:Scrutinizing Science: Empirical Studies of Scientific Change, A. Donovan, L. Laudan and R. Laudan (eds.), pp. 181–198. Dordrecht, Holland: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
—, Jr. (1978). Science as a Rational Enterprise. Ph.D dissertation, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
—, Jr. (1988c). Science as a Rational Enterprise.Theory and Decision 24:147–167.
Diamond, A.M., Jr. (1993b). Scientists' Salaries: A Test of Two Models. Working paper.
—, Jr. (1988d). Some Things Do Not Go Better with Coke: A Comment on Gieryn's “Science and Coca-Cola”.Science, Technology, and Human Values 13:1/2 (Winter/Spring): 75-77.
—, Jr. (1986b). What is a Citation Worth?The Journal of Human Resources 21:2 (Spring): 200–215.
—, Jr. (1988e). Where the Beef Is: A Brief Response to Gieryn's Reply.Science, Technology, and Human Values 13:1/2 (Winter/Spring):82.
Diamond, A.M., Jr., and S.K. Feigenbaum (1993). Gender Differences in Response to Changing Subfield Demand. Working paper.
Diamond, A.M., Jr., and D.R. Haurin (1995). Hanging Patterns of Subfield Specialization among Cohorts of Economists from 1927–1988.Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology 13:103–123.
—, Jr. (1993). The Dissemination of Research Agendas among Young Economists.The Journal of Economic Education 24:1 (Winter):53–61.
—, Jr. (1994). The Determinants among Ph.D. Economists of Membership in a Professional Association.Education Economics 2(1):13–28.
Diamond, A.M., Jr., and D.M. Levy (1994). The Metrics of Style: Adam Smith Teaches Efficient Rhetoric.Economic Inquiry 32:1 (January):138–145.
Diamond, A.M., Jr., and J. Medewitz (1990). Use of Data Envelopment Analysis in an Evaluation of the Efficiency of the DEEP Program for Economic Education.The Journal of Economic Education 21:3 (Summer):337–354.
Dickson, D. (1989). British Biologists Learn Small Is Not Beautiful.Science 244 (May): 766–767.
Dosi, G. (1988). Sources, Procedures, and Microeconomic Effects of Innovation.Journal of Economic Literature 26:3 (September):1120–1171.
—, (1984).Technological Change and Industrial Transformation. London: Macmillan.
Dvorak, J.C. (1994). Inside Track.PC Magazine 13:4 (February):95.
Ehrenberg, R.G. and M. Bognanno (1990). Do Tournaments Have Incentive Effects?Journal of Political Economy 98:6 (December):1307–1324.
Ehrenberg, R.G., H. Kasper, and D. Rees (1991). Faculty Turnover at American Colleges and Universities: Analyses of AAUP Data.Economics of Education Review 10(2):99–110.
Evenson, R.E. (1993). Patents, R&D, and Invention Potential: International Evidence.The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 83:2 (May):463–468.
Feigenbaum, S. and D.M. Levy (1993). The Market for (Ir)reproducible Results.Social Epistemology 7(3):215–232.
Frank, R.H. (1984). Are Workers Paid Their Marginal Products?The American Economic Review 74:4 (September):549–571.
— (1985).Choosing the Right Pond. New York: Oxford University Press.
Freeman, R.B. (1975). Supply and Salary Adjustments to the Changing Science Manpower Market: Physics, 1948–1973.American Economic Review 65:1 (March):27–39.
Freeman, S. (1977). Wage Trends as Performance Displays Productive Potential: A Model and Application to Academic Early Retirement.Bell Journal of Economics 8 (Fall):419–443.
Friedman, M. (1966). The Methodology of Positive Economics. In:Essays in Positive Economics, pp. 3–43. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Edition.
Friedman, M., Friedman, M. (1981). An Open Letter on Grants.Newsweek (May 18):99.
Fuller, S. (1994). Preview.Social Epistemology 8:1 (January/March):1.
—, (1988).Social Epistemology. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
Fuller, S. (1991). Studying the Proprietary Grounds of Knowledge. In:To Have Possessions: A Handbook on Ownership and Property, F.W. Rudmin (ed.). Special Issue,Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 6(6):105–128.
Galbraith, J.K. (1985).The New Industrial State, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. (first edition 1967).
Garner, A.C. (1979). Academic Publication, Market Signaling, and Scientific Research Decisions.Economic Inquiry 17 (October):575–584.
Gaston, J. (1978).The Reward System in British and American Science New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Ghiselin, M.T. (1987). The Economics of Scientific Discovery. In:Economic Imperialism: The Economic Approach Applied Outside the Field of Economics, G. Radnitzky and P. Bernholz (eds.), pp. 271–282. New York: Paragon House Publishers.
Gieryn, T.F. 91987). Science and Coca-Cola.Science & Technology Studies 5 (Spring):12–21, 31.
— (1988). Coke Is It! Reply to Diamond.Science, Technology, & Human Values 13: 1/2 (Winter/Spring): 78–81.
Goldman, A.H. (1988).Empirical Knowledge. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Goldman, A.I. and M. Shaked (1992). An Economic Model of Scientific Activity and Truth Acquisition. In:Liasons: Philosophy Meets the Cognitive and Social Sciences, A.I. Goldman (ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press.
Griliches, Z. (1986). Productivity, R&D and Basic Research at the Firm Level in the 1970s.The American Economic Review 76:1 (March):141–154.
— (1994). Productivity, R&D, and the Data Constraint.The American Economic Review 84:1 (March):1–23.
Grubel, H.G. and L.A. Boland (1986). On the Efficient Use of Mathematics in Economics: Some Theory, Facts and Results of an Opinion Survey.Kyklos 39:419–442.
Hagstrom, W.O. (1965).The Scientific Community. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Hall, A.R. (1980).Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hamermesh, D.S. (1989). Why Do Individual-Effects Models Perform so Poorly? The Case of Academic Salaries.Southern Economic Journal 56:1 (July):39–45.
Hamermesh, D.S., G.E. Johnson and B.A. Weisbrod (1982). Scholarship, Citations and Salaries: Economic Rewards in Economics.Southern Economic Journal 49:2 (October): 472–481.
Hands, D.W. (1993). The Sociology of Scientific Knowledge and Economics: Some Thoughts on the Possibilities. Working paper.
Hansen, R.B. (1985). A Test of the Hansen-Weisbrod-Strauss Model of Faculty Salaries.Atlantic Economic Journal 13:3 (September):33–40.
Hansen, W.L., B.A. Weisbrod and R.P. Strauss (1978). Modelling the Earnings and Research Productivity of Academic Economists.Journal of Political Economy 86 (August):729–741.
Hansmann, H. (1990). Why Do Universities Have Endowments?Journal of Legal Studies 19:1 (January):3–42.
Hanson, R. (1995). Could Gambling Save Science? Encouraging and Honest Consensus.Social Epistemology 9:1 (January):3–33.
Hanushek, E.A. (1986). The Economics of Schooling.Journal of Economic Literature 24:3 (September):1141–1177.
Hargens, L.L. (1990a). Neglected Considerations in the Analysis of Agreement among Journal Referees.Scienometrics 19(1/2):91–106.
— (1988) Scholarly Consensus and Journal Rejection Rates.American Sociological Review 53:1 (February):139–151.
— (1990b). Variation in Journal Peer Review Systems: Possible Causes and Consequences.The Journal of the American Medical Association 263:10 (March):1348–1352.
Harris, M. and B. Holmstrom (1982). A Theory of Wage Dynamics.Review of Economic Studies 49:315–333.
Harris, M. and Y. Weiss (1984). Job Matching with Finite Horizon and Risk Aversion.Journal of Political Economy 92 (August):755–779.
Hayek, F.A. (1945). The Use of Knowledge in Society.American Economic Review 35:4 (September):519–530. Reprinted inIndividualism and Economic Order. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1972.
Heath, J.A. (1989). An Econometric Model of the Role of Gender in Economic Education.American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 79:2 (May):226–230.
Heertje, A. (1987). J.A. Schumpeter. In:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, J. Eatwell, M. Milgate and P. Newman (eds.), vol. 4, pp. 263–267. New York: Stockton Press.
Hippel, E. von (1988).The Sources of Innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Holtmann, A.G. (1988). Theories of Non-Profit Institutions.Journal of Economic Surveys 2(1):29–45.
Holtmann, A.G. and A.E. Bayer (1970). Determinants of Professional Income among Recent Recipients of Natural Science Doctorates.Journal of Business 43:4 (October):410–418.
Holub, H.W., G. Tappeiner and V. Eberharter (1991). The Iron Law of Important Articles.Southern Economic Journal 58:2 (October):317–328.
Honan, W.H. (1994). New Pressures on the University.The New York Times, Education Life, section 4A (January 9):16–18.
Huffman, W.E. and R.E. Evenson (1993).Science for Agriculture. Chicago: Iowa State University Press.
Hull, D.L. (1978). Altruism in Science: A Sociobiological Model of Cooperative Behaviour among Scientists.Animal Behaviour 26:685–697.
— (1988).Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Ito, T. and C. Kahn (1986). Why Is there Tenure? Discussion Paper no. 228, Center for Economic Research, University of Minnesota, February.
Jaffe, A.B. (1989). Real Effects of Academic Research.The American Economic Review 79:5 (December):957–969.
Jaffe, A.B., M. Trajtenberg and R. Henderson (1993). Geographic Localization of Knowledge Spillovers as Evidenced by Patent Citations.Quarterly Journal of Economics 108:3 (August):577-598.
Johnson, G.E. and F.P. Stafford (1974). Lifetime Earnings in a Professional Labor Market: Academic Economists.Journal of Political Economy 82:3 (May/June):549–569.
Johnson, H.G. (1972). Some Economic Aspects of Science.Minerva 10:1 (January):10–18.
— (1973). The University and Social Welfare.Minerva 11:1 (January):30–52.
Joyce, P. (1990). Price Discrimination in “Top” Scientific Journals.Applied Economics 22:8 (August):1127–1135.
Kahn, J.A., S.E. Landsburg and A.C. Stockman (1992). On Novel Confirmation.The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 43:4 (December):503–516.
— (1996). The Positive Economics of Methodology.Journal of Economic Theory 68:1 (January):64–76.
Katz, D.A. (1973). Faculty Salaries, Promotions, and Productivity at a Large University.The American Economic Review 63:3 (June):469–477.
Kendrick, J.W. (1973).Postwar Productivity Trends in the United States, 1948–1969. New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Kenny, L.W. and R.E. Studley (1995). Economists′ Salaries and Lifetime Productivity.Southern Economic Journal 62:2 (October):382–392.
Kesselring, R.G. and C.T. Strein (1986). A Test of the Williamson Hypothesis for Universities.The Journal of Behavioral Economics 15:1/2 (Spring/Summer):103–112.
Keynes, J.M. (1973).The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Volume 7 of The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes. N.Y.: St. Martin's Press (originally published by Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1936).
Kirzner, I.M. (1973).Competition and Entrepreneurship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
— (1985).Discovery and the Capitalist Process. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
— (1979).Perception, Opportunity, and Profit: Studies in the Theory of Entrepreneurship. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Kitcher, P. (1990). The Division of Cognitive Labor.The Journal of Philosophy 87:1 (January): 5-22.
Knight, F.H. (1921).Risk Uncertainty and Profit. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Knorr-Cetina, K. (1991). Epistemic Cultures: Forms of Reason in Science.History of Political Economy 23:1 (Spring):105–122.
Koch, J.V. and J.F. Chizmar (1973). The Influence of Teaching and Other Factors upon Absolute Salaries and Salary Increments at Illinois State University.The Journal of Economic Education 5:1 (Fall):27–34.
Kohler, R.E. (1993). Drosophila: A Life in the Laboratory.Journal of the History of Biology 26:2(Summer):281–310.
— (1990). The Ph.D. Machine: Building on the Collegiate Base.Isis 81:309 (December): 638-662.
Koren, G. (1986). A Simple Way to Improve the Chances for Acceptance of Your Scientific Papers.The New England Journal of Medicine (November):1298.
— (1987). Why You Should Typeset Your Papers.The Scientist 1:6 (June):12.
Kortum, S. (1993). Equilibrium R&D and the Patent-R&D Ratio: U.S. Evidence.The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 83:2 (May):450–457.
Kuhn, T.S. (1970).The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, (1st edition, 1962).
Laband, D.N. (1986). Article Popularity.Economic Inquiry 24 (January):173–180.
Landes, D.S. (1969).The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change 1750 to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Landsburg, S.E. (1993). Was Einstein Credible? The Economics of Scientific Method.The Armchair Economist, pp. 203–210. New York: The Free Press.
Latour, B. and S. Woolgar (1986).Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts, 2nd ed. Armchair Economist, pp. 203–210, New York: The Free Press.
Latour B., and S. Woolgar (1986).Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts, 2nd ed. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Lazear, E.P. (1996). Incentives in Basic Research. Working Paper #5444, National Bureau of Economic Research, January.
— (1989). Pay Equality and Industrial Politics.Journal of Political Economy 97:3 (June):561–580.
— (1979). Why Is there Mandatory Retirement?Journal of Political Economy 87:6 (December):1261-1284.
Lazear, E.P. and S. Rosen (1981). Rank-Order Tournaments as Optimum Labor Contracts.Journal of Political Economy 89:5 (October):841-846.
Levy, D.M. (1990). Estimating the Impact of Government R & D.Economics Letter 32:2 (February):169-173.
— (1988). The Market for Fame and Fortune.History of Political Economy 20:4 (Winter): 615–625.
Levy, D.M. and N.E. Terleckyj (1995). Economic Effects of Federal R & D Expenditures. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Economic Association, January.
Lewis, M.M. (1989).Liar's Poker: Rising Through the Wreckage on Wall Street. New York: Norton.
Lichtenberg, F. and D. Siegel (1991). The Impact of R&D Investment on Productivity— New Evidence Using Linked R&D—LRD Data.Economic Inquiry 29:2 (April):203–229.
Liebowitz, S.J. (1985). Copying and Indirect Appropriability: Photocopying of Journals.Journal of Political Economy 93:5 (October):945–957.
Lillard, L.A. and Y. Weiss (1979). Components of Variation in Panel Earnings Data: American Scientists 1960–70.Econometrica 47:2 (March):437–453.
Lindley, J.T., M. Fish and J. Jackson (1992). Gender Differences in Salaries: An Application to Academe.Southern Economic Journal 59:2 (October):241–259.
Link A.N. (1982). An Analysis of the Composition of R&D Spending.Southern Economic Journal 49:2 (October):342–349.
Link, A.N. (1982). An Analysis of the Composition of R&D Spending.Southern Economic Journal 49:2 (October):342–349.
Link, A.N. and J.E. Long (1981). The Simple Economics of Basic Scientific Research: A Test of Nelsons's Diversification Hypothesis.The Journal of Industrial Economics 30:1 (September):105–109.
Lovell, M.C. (1973). The Production of Economic Literature: An InterpretationJournal of Economic Literature 11:1 (March):27–55.
McCloskey, D.N. (1985). Economical Writing.Economic Inquiry 23 (April):187–222.
McDowell, J.M. (1982). Obsolescence of Knowledge and Career Publication Profiles: Some Evidence of Differences among Fields in Costs of Interrupted Careers.American Economic Review 72 (September):752–768.
McKenzie, R.B. (1979). The Economic Basis of Departmental Discord in Academe.Social Science Quarterly 59:4(March):653–664.
Mansfield, E. (1991). Academic Research and Industrial Innovation.Research Policy 20:1–12.
— (1992). Academic Research and Industrial Innovation: A Further Note.Research Policy 21:295–296.
— (1995). Academic Research Underlying Industrial Innovations: Sources, Characteristics, and Financing.Review of Economics and Statistics 77:1 (February):55–65.
— (1968a).The Economics of Technological Change. New York: W.W. Norton.
Mason, P.M., J.W. Steagall and M.M. Fabritius (1992) Publication Delays in Articles in Economics: What to Do about Them.Applied Economics 24:8 (August):859–874.
Merton, R.K. (1973) The Normative Structure of Science. In:The Sociology of Science. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
—. (1957). Science and Economy of 17th Century England. In:Social Theory and Social Structure, revised and enlarged ed. New York: The Free Press, pp. 607–627 (first published inScience and Society 3, 1939).
—. (1970).Science, Technology, and Society in Seventeenth-Century England. New York: Howard Fertig (first published inOsiris 4, part 2, 1938).
Merton, R.C. and R.K. Merton (1982). Unanticipated Consequences of the Reward System in Science: A Model of the Sequencing of Problem-Choices. Working paper.
Metcalfe, J.S. (1987). Technical Change. In:The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, vol. 4, J. Eatwell, M. Milgate and P. Newman (eds.), pp. 617–620. New York: Stockton Press.
Mincer, J. (1974).Schooling, Experience, and Earnings, New York: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Mokyr, J. (1990).The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress. New York: Oxford University Press.
Mowery, D.C. and N. Rosenberg (1989).Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mulkay, M. (1976). The Mediating Role of the Scientific Elite.Social Studies of Science 6:445–470.
—. (1980). Sociology of Science in the West.Current Sociology 28 (Winter):1–116 and 133–184.
Munevar, G. (1990 draft). The Dimming of Starlight.
Murphy, K.M., A. Shleifer and R.W. Vishny (1991). The Allocation of Talent: Implications for Growth.The Quarterly Journal of Economics 106:2(May):503–530.
Nelson, R.R. (1986). Institutions Supporting Technical Advance in Industry.The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 76:2 (May):186–189.
— (1962). The Link between Science and Invention: The Case of the Transistor. In: R.R. Nelson (ed.), National Bureau of Economic Research, pp. 549–583,The Rate and Direction of Inventive Activity: Economic and Social Factors. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
— (1959). The Simple Economics of Basic Scientific Research.Journal of Political Economy 67:297–306.
Nelson, R.R. and G. Wright (1992). The Rise and Fall of American Technological Leadership: The Postwar Era in Historical Perspective.Journal of Economic Literature 30:4 (December):1931–1964.
Nickles, T. (1985). Beyond Divorce: Current Status of the Discovery Debate.Philosophy of Science 52:2 (June):177–206.
O'Keeffe, M.W., K. Viscusi and R.J. Zeckhauser (1984). Economic Contests: Comparative Reward Schemes.Journal of Labor Economics 2(January):27–56.
Parker, D.D. and D. Zilberman (1993). University Technology Transfers: Impacts on Local and U.S. Economies.Contemporary Policy Issues 11:2(April):87–99.
Patinkin, D. (1983). Multiple Discoveries and the Central Message.American Journal of Sociology 89(2):306–323.
Peirce, C.S. (1966). Economy of Research. In:Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, volumes 7 & 8, A.W. Burks (ed.), two volumes in one, pp. 76–88. Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press (first published 1879).
Peters, D.P. and S.J. Ceci (1982). Peer-Review Practices of Psychological Journals: The Fate of Published Articles, Submitted Again. Reprinted from “The Behavioral and Brain Sciences.” In:Peer Commentary on Pcer Review: A Case Study in Scientific Quality Control, S. Harnad (ed.), Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Pickering, A. (1984).Constructing Quarks: A Sociological History of Particle Physics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Polanyi, M. (1962). The Republic of Science: Its Political and Economic Theory.Minerva 1:1 (Autumn):54–73. Also reprinted in Edward Shils (ed.),Criteria for Scientific Development: Public Policy and National Goals. Cambridge, Mass.: The M.I.T. Press, 1968, pp. 1–20; also reprinted as a booklet from Chicago: Roosevelt University, 1962; also reprinted in M. Polanyi,Knowing and Being. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969, pp. 49–72.
Posner, R.A. (1988). Theory of Primitive Society, With Special Reference to Law. In:Chicago Studies in Political Economy, G.J. Stigler (ed.), pp. 149–206. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (reprinted fromThe Journal of Law and Economics 23:1 [1980]:1–53).
Price, D.J. de Solla (1963).Little Science, Big Science. New York: Columbia University Press.
—. (1975).Science Since Babylon. Enlarged edition New Haven: Yale University Press.
Psacharopoulos, G. (ed.) (1987).Economics of Education Research and Studies. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Radnitzky, G. (1987). The “Economic” Approach to the Philosophy of Science.The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 38:2 (June):159–179.
Ransom, M.R. (1993). Seniority and Monopsony in the Academic Labor Market.The American Economic Review 83:1 (March):221–233.
Rees, A. (1993). The Salaries of Ph.D.'s in Academe and Elsewhere.The Journal of Economic perspectives 7:1 (Winter):151–158.
Rees, A. and S.P. Smith (1991).Faculty Retirement in the Arts and Sciences. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Rescher, N. (1976). Peirce and the Economy of Research.Philosophy of Science 43:71–98.
— (1978).Scientific Progress: A Philosophical Essay on the Economics of Research in Natural Science. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Restivo, S. (1990). The Social Roots of Pure Mathematics. In:Theories of Science in Society, S.E. Cozzens and T.F. Gieryn (eds.), pp. 120–143. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
Rivera-Batiz, L.A. and P.M. Romer (1991a). Economic Integration and Endogenous Growth.The Quarterly Journal of Economics 106:2 (May):531–555.
— (1991b). International Trade with Endogenous Technological Change.European Economic Review 35:4 (May):971–1004.
Rogge, B. and P.F. Goodrich (1973). Education in a Free Society. In:Education in a Free Society, A.H. Burleigh (ed.), pp. 29–55. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, Inc.
Romer, P.M. (1990). Endogenous Technological Change.Journal of Political Economy 98:5, part 2 (October):S71-S102.
Rosen, S. (1985). Implicit Contracts: A Survey.Journal of Economic Literature 23:3 (September): 1144–1175.
— (1987). Some Economics of Teaching.Journal of Labor Economics 5:4 (October):561–575.
Rosenberg, N. (1982).Inside the Black Box: Technology and Economics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rosenberg, N. and L.E. Birdzell, Jr. (1990). Science, Technology and the Western Miracle.Scientific American 263:5 (November):42–44, 48, 50 and 52–54.
Rosenfeld, R.A. (1981). Academic Men and Women's Career Mobility.Social Science Research 10 (December):337–363.
Roth, A.E. (1994). The Timing of Transactions in Entry-Level Professional Labor Markets. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Economic Association, Boston, January 3.
Rothman, B. and C. Strein (1982). The University Administrator as a Utility Maximizer.Rivista Internazionale di Scienze Economiche e Commerciali 29:5 (Maggio):451–464.
Rubenson, D.L. and M.A. Runco (1992). The Psychoeconomic Approach to Creativity.New Ideas in Psychology 10(2):131–147.
Sandler, T. and J.T. Tschirhart (1980). The Economic Theory of Clubs: An Evaluative Survey.Journal of Economic Literature 18:4 (December):1481–1521.
Sauer, R.D. (1988). Estimates of the Returns to Quality and Coauthorship in Economic Academia.The Journal of Political Economy 96:4 (August):855–866.
Scharfstein, D.S. and J.C. Stein (1990). Herd Behavior and Investment.The American Economic Review 80:3 (June):465–479.
Schmookler, J. (1966).Invention and Economic Growth. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
— (1972).Patents, Invention, and Economic Change: Data and Selected Essays. Z. Griliches and L. Hurwicz (eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Schuman, H. (1994). Possible Science, Impossible Discipline.Social Epistemology 8:1 (January–March): 27–33.
Schumpeter, J. (1976).Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. New York: Harper & Row.
— (1954).History of Economic Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press.
— (1934).The Theory of Economic Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Schwartz, A. (1988). Tenure: Can It Be Explained by an “Efficiency Wage” Argument? Tel-Aviv University, Working Paper no. 36-88, November.
Shrum, W. and J. Morris (1990). Organizational Constructs for the Assembly of Technological Knowledge. In:Theories of Science in Society, S.E. Cozzens and T.F. Gieryn (eds.), pp. 235–257. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
Siegfried, J.J. and K.J. White (1973). Teaching and Publishing as Determinants of Academic Salaries.The Journal of Economic Education 4:2 (Spring):90–99.
Simon, C.J. and J.T. Warner (1992). Matchmaker, Matchmaker: The Effect of Old Boy Networks on Job Match Quality, Earnings and Tenure.The Journal of Labor Economics 10:3 (July):306–330.
Simon, J.L. (1991). How to Add Junior Tenure-Track Positions at No Additional Cost to the University.Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 10(3):482–485.
Simonton, D.K. (1988a). Age and Outstanding Achievement: What Do We Know After a Century of Research?Psychological Bulletin 104(2):251–267.
— (1988b).Scientific Genius: A Psychology of Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Siow, A. (1991). Are First Impressions Important in Academia?Journal of Human Resources 26:2 (Spring):236–255.
— (1984). Occupational Choice under Uncertainty.Econometrica 52:3 (May):631–645.
Siow, A. (1993). The Organization of the Market for Professors. Working paper, September.
Skeels, J.W. and R.P. Fairbanks (1968/1969). Publish or Perish: An Analysis of the Mobility of Publishing and Nonpublishing Economists.The Southern Economic Journal 35:1/4 (July 1968–April 1969):17–25.
Smith, A. (1980).Essays on Philosophical Subjects, W.P.D. Wightman and J.C. Bryce (eds.). Indianapolis: Liberty Press.
— (1976a).An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Indianapolis: Liberty Press (first edition published 1776).
— (1983).Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
— (1976b).The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Oxford: Clarendon Press (first edition published in 1759).
Smith, S.P. (1991). Ending Mandatory Retirement in the Arts and Sciences.American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 81:2 (May):106–110.
Solow, R. (1957). Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function.Review of Economic and Statistics 39(August):312–320.
Southwick, L., Jr. (1967). The University as a Firm.Carnegie Review (October):3–8 and 25–29.
Spence, M. (1973). Job Market Signaling.Quarterly Journal of Economics 87 (August):355–374.
Squires, A.M. (1986).The Tender Ship. Boston: Birkhauser.
Stephan, P.E. and S.G. Levin (1988). Measures of Scientific Output and the Age-Productivity Relationship. In:Quantitative Studies of Science and Technology, Ch. 2, A.F.J. van Raan (ed.), Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland).
— (1992).Striking the Mother Lode in Science: The Importance of Age, Place, and Time. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stigler, G.J. (1982a). Does Economics Have a Useful Past? In:The Economist as Preacher and Other Essays, pp. 107–118. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (first appeared inHistory of Political Economy 1 [Fall] 1969).
— (1968). The Economies of Scale. In:The Organization of Industry, pp. 71–94. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. (first appeared inJournal of Law and Economics 1 [Oct.] 1958).
— (1982b). The Literature of Economics: The Case of the Kinked Oligopoly Demand Curve. In:The Economist as Preacher and Other Essays, pp. 223–243. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (first appeared inEconomic Inquiry 16 [April]).
— (1982c). Merton on Multiples, Denied and Affirmed. In:The Economist as Preacher and Other Essays, pp. 98–103. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (first appeared inScience and Social Structure: A Festchrift for Robert K. Merton. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1980).
— (1983). Nobel Lecture: The Process and Progress of Economics.Journal of Political Economy 91:4 (August):529–545.
— (1965). Statistical Studies in the History of Economic Thought. In:Essays in the History of Economics, pp. 31–50. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Stigler, G.J. and C. Friedland (1982a). The Citation Practices of Doctorates in Economics. Reprinted inThe Economist as Preacher and Other Essays pp. 192–222. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (first appeared inJournal of Political Economy 83(3):477–507).
— (1982b). The Pattern of Citation Practices in Economics. Reprinted inThe Economist as Preacher and Other Essays pp. 173–191. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (first appeared inHistory of Political Economy 11(1):1–20).
Stolen, J.D. and J.M. Gleason (1986). The Allocation of Time in Academe: Rent-Seeking Implications.Decision Sciences 17:2 (Spring):212–219.
— (1984). Rent Seeking Implications for Salary Increments in Academe.Omega 12(5):485–488.
Toulmin, S. (1972).Human Understanding. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Tremblay, C.H. (1992). National Science Foundation Funding in Economics and Chemistry.Atlantic Economic Journal 20:2 (June):57–64.
Tuckman, H.P. (1976)Publication, Teaching, and the Academic Reward Structure. Lexington: D.C. Heath and Company.
Tuckman, H.P., J. Gapinski, and R.P. Hagemann (1977). Faculty Skills and the Salary Structure in Academe: A Market Perspective.American Economic Review 67 (September): 692–702.
Tuckman, H.P. and R.P. Hagemann (1976). An Analysis of the Reward Structure in Two Disciplines.The Journal of Higher Education 47:4 (July/August):447–464.
Tuckman, H.P. and J. Leahey (1975). What is an Article Worth?The Journal of Political Economy 83:951–967.
Tullock, G. (1991) Casual Reflections of an Editor.Public Choice 71:3 (September):129–139.
— (1966).The Organization of Inquiry. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.
— (1973). Universities Should Discriminate against Assistant Professors.Journal of Political Economy 81:5 (September–October):1256–1257.
— (1967). The Welfare Costs of Tariffs, Monopolies, and Theft.Western Economic Journal 5 (June):224–232 (reprinted in J.M. Buchanan, R.D. Tollison, and G. Tullock [eds.],Toward a Theory of the Rent-Seeking Society, 1980, pp. 39–50. College Station, Texas: Texas A & M University Press).
Turner, S.P. (1990). Forms of Patronage. In:Theories of Science in Society, pp. 185–211. S.E. Cozzens, and T.F. Gieryn (eds.). Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.
— (1994). The Origins of “Mainstream Sociology” and Other Issues in the History of American Sociology.Social Epistemology 8:1 (January–March):41–67.
Turner, S.P. and J.H. Turner (1990).The Impossible Science: An Institutional Analysis of American Sociology. Newbury Park, Cal.: Sage Publications.
Waldman, M. (1990). Up-or-Out Contracts: A Signaling Perspective.Journal of Labor Economics 8:2 (April):230–250.
Walstad, W.B. and J.C. Soper (1988). A Report Card on the Economic Literacy of U.S. High School Students.The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings 78:2 (May):251–262.
Watts, M. and G.J. Lynch (1989). The Principles Courses Revisited.American Economic Review: Proceedings 79:2 (May):236–241.
Weiler, W.C. (1987). Economic Issues in Faculty Retirement Plans in American Higher Education Institutions.Economics of Education Review 6(3):207–226.
— (1991). Job Changing Decisions of Faculty Members: A Case Study of a Model with Multiple Selection.Applied Economics 23:4, Part A (April):591–597.
Weisbrod, B.A. (1988).The Nonprofit Economy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
— (1989). Rewarding Performance that Is Hard to Measure: The Private Nonprofit Sector.Science 244:4904 (May):541-545.
Weiss, Y., and L. Lillard (1982). Output Variability, Academic Labor Contracts and Waiting Time for Promotion.Research in Labor Economics, R.G. Ehrenberg (ed.), 5:157–188.
Westfall, R.S. (1980).Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Williamson, O.E. (1967).The Economics of Discretionary Behavior: Managerial Objectives and the Theory of the Firm. Chicago: Markham Publishing Co.
Wolpin, K.I. (1977). Education and Screening.The American Economic Review 67:5 (December):949–958.
Zuckerman, H. (1977).Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States. New York: The Free Press.
Zuckerman, H. and J.R. Cole (1975). Women in American Science.Minerva 13:82–102.
Zuckerman, H. and R.K. Merton (1971). Patterns of Evaluation in Science: Institutionalisation, Structure and Functions of the Referee System.Minerva 9:66–100.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Diamond, A.M. The economics of science. Knowledge and Policy 9, 6–49 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02696298
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02696298