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Spermatozoan biology from Leeuwenhoek to Spallanzani

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References

  1. C. Castellani, La Storia della Generazione (Milan, 1965).

  2. M. Schurig, Spermatologia historico-medica (Frankfurt, 1720).

  3. C.Castellani, “La scoperta degli spermatozoi e gli studi di A. van Leeuwenhoek sullo sperma maschile,” Riv. Stor. Med.1 (1963) 18–43.

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  4. A. van Leeuwenhoek, The Collected Letters, vol. II, Amsterdam, 1941 (Letter no. 35, November 1677).

  5. A.vanLeeuwenhoek, “Observationes de natis e semine genitali animalculis,” Phil. Trans.12 (1679), 1040.

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  6. A. van Leeuwenhoek, The Collected Letters, II, 285.

  7. Ibid., p. 287.

  8. Ibid., p. 293.

  9. Ibid., p. 363 (Letter no. 35, May 31, 1678).

  10. Ibid., vol. IV, Amsterdam 1952, p. 9 (Letter no. 70, January 22, 1683).

  11. Ibid., vol. III, Amsterdam 1948, p. 19 (April 25, 1679).

  12. Ibid., p. 205 (Letter no. 57, April 5, 1680).

  13. Ibid., pp. 79–81 (June 13, 1679).

  14. Ibid., p. 205 (April 5, 1680).

  15. Ibid., vol. II, Amsterdam, 1948, p. 365 (Letter no. 35, May 31, 1678).

  16. Ibid., vol. V, Amsterdam, 1957, p. 143 (March 30, 1685).

  17. Ibid., pp. 143–145.

  18. Ibid., p. 187.

  19. Ibid., p. 193.

  20. Ibid., p. 195.

  21. Ibid., p. 191.

  22. C. Castellani, “Su una singolare corrente teologico-scientifica... relativa al problema della generazione...,“ Atti XVIII Cong. Naz. Stor. Med., 1962.

  23. N. Hartsoeker, Essais de dioptrique (Paris, 1694).

  24. A.vanLeeuwenhoek, The Collected Letters, vol. II, Amsterdam, 1941, pp. 79–81 (May 31, 1678).

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  25. N. Andry, De la génération des vers dans le corps de l'homme (Paris, 1700).

  26. J. T. Needham, An Account of some New Microscopical Discoveries..., (London, 1745); Observations upon the generation, composition, and decomposition... (London, 1749).

  27. J. T. Needham, An Account..., p. 56. Actually, they were what are currently termed spermatophores which the male transfers into the female's body at the time of insemination. They open, and a release mechanism ejects the spermatozoa. (I wish to thank Professor P. Omodeo, to whom we are indebted for this information.)

  28. G. L. Buffon, Histoire Naturelle (Paris, 1749). We used the Paris 1837 edition, vol. 11, p. 391 [tr. D. L. Hall].

  29. C. Castellani, “Generation in Bonnet and Buffon: a Critical Comparison,” Science, Medicine and Society in the Renaissance, ed. A. Debus. In press.

  30. C.Castellani, “L'origine degli infusori nella polemica Needham, Spallanzani, Bonnet,” Episteme3 (1969) 214–241; 1, (1970) 19–36.

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  31. G. L. Buffon, Hist. Nat., p. 423 [all references translated by D. L. Hall].

  32. Ibid., p. 424.

  33. Ibid., p. 425.

  34. Ibid., p. 426.

  35. Ibid.

  36. Ibid.

  37. Ibid., p. 428.

  38. Ibid., p. 446.

  39. Ibid., p. 439.

  40. Ibid., p. 449.

  41. Ibid., p. 450.

  42. C. Castellani, “L'origine degli infusori...”

  43. L. Spallanzani, “Saggio di osservazioni microscopiche sul sistema della generazione de' Sigg. Needham e Buffon,” in Dissertazioni due dell'Abate Spallanzani... (Modena, 1765).

  44. J. T. Needham, Nouvelles recherches sur les découvertes microscopiques et la génération des corps organisés... (Paris, 1769).

  45. Ch.Bonnet, Lettres à M. l'Abbé Spallanzani, ed. C.Castellani (Milan: Episteme Editrice, 1971).

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  46. L. Spallanzani, Epistolario, ed. B. Biagi and D. Prandi (Florence, 1958–64), vol. I, letter no. 178, p. 275.

  47. Ch.Bonnet, Lettres à M. l'Abbé Spallanzani, ed. C.Castellani (Milan: Episteme Editrice, 1971), from a letter dated April 20, 1771, p. 201.

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  48. L. Spallanzani L, Epistolario, vol. I, letter no. 190, p. 302.

  49. L. Spallanzani, “Osservazioni e sperienze intorno ai Vermicelli Spermatici,” in Opuscoli di Fisica Animale, e Vegetabile (Modena, 1776).

  50. Ibid., p. 29.

  51. Ibid., p. 13 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  52. Ibid., p. 11 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  53. Ibid., pp. 15–16 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  54. Ibid., pp. 18–19.

  55. Ibid., p. 26 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  56. A. van Leeuwenhoek, The Collected Letters, vol. III, Amsterdam, 1948 (February 21, 1679).

  57. L. Spallanzani L, “Osservazioni...,” p. 10 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  58. Ibid., pp. 11–12.

  59. Ibid, p. 16 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  60. Ibid., pp. 16–17.

  61. Ibid., p. 17.

  62. Ibid., p. 87 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  63. Ibid., pp. 87–88.

  64. Ibid., p. 37 [tr. B. R. Buck].

  65. Ch. Bonnet, Lettres á M. l'Abbé..., p. 203 (April 20, 1771).

  66. Ch. Linnaeus, Generatio Ambinega (Upsala, 1759) p. 5 [tr. D. L. Hall].

  67. L. Spallanzani, “Osservazioni...”, pp. 57–58.

  68. Ibid., pp. 59–60.

  69. Ibid., pp. 57–58.

  70. Unfortunately, no accurate information is available as to the microscopes that Spallanzani may have used. For discussion of the optical instruments of the period and their defects, see S. Bradbury, The Evolution of the Microscope (Oxford, 1967) chap. 4, pp. 104 ff.

  71. L. Spallanzani, “Osservazioni...”, p. 65.

  72. A. Haller, Elementa Physiologiae (Lausanne, 1757–66); I used the Venice 1775 edition, vol. V, p. 229.

  73. L. Spallanzani, “Osservazioni...”, p. 71.

  74. Ibid., p. 73.

  75. Ibid., p. 107.

  76. Ch. Bonnet, Lettres à M. l'Abbé..., pp. 203ff (April 21, 1771).

  77. L. Spallanzani, “Osservazioni...”, p. 118.

  78. Ibid., p. 118.

  79. Ibid., pp. 118–119.

  80. Ibid., p. 124.

  81. Ibid.

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Castellani, C. Spermatozoan biology from Leeuwenhoek to Spallanzani. J Hist Biol 6, 37–68 (1973). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00137298

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