Abstract
We revisited the sunspot observations published by Johannes Hevelius in his book Machina Coelestis (1679) corresponding to the period of 1653 – 1675 (just in the middle of the Maunder Minimum). We show detailed translations of the original Latin texts describing the sunspot records and provide the general context of these sunspot observations. From this source, we present an estimate of the annual values of the group sunspot number based only on the records that explicitly inform us of the presence or absence of sunspots. Although we obtain very low values of the group sunspot number, in accordance with a grand minimum of solar activity, these values are significantly higher in general than the values provided by Hoyt and Schatten (Solar Phys. 179, 189, 1998) for the same period.
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Acknowledgements
Support from the Junta de Extremadura (Research Group Grant No. GR10131), and from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of the Spanish Government (AYA2011-25945 and AYA2014-57556-P) is gratefully acknowledged.
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Appendix: Sunspot Observations from Machina Coelestis by Hevelius
Appendix: Sunspot Observations from Machina Coelestis by Hevelius
In the following table, the first column lists the year of the observation. The second column lists the day and the month. The third column contains the transcription in Latin of the original text with its corresponding translation in brackets. The fourth column indicates the character of this date: (AD) active day or (QD) quiet day.
Year | Date | Original comment [Translation] | Active or quiet |
|---|---|---|---|
1653 | Feb. 5 | Macula exigua apparuit [Small sunspot appeared] | AD |
Mar. 1 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 9 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 23 | Macula in quadrante Orientali Solis [Sunspot in the eastern quadrant of the Sun] | AD | |
Mar. 24 | Macula Solis [Sunspot] | AD | |
Mar. 25 | Binae maculae in Sole [Double spot in the Sun] | AD | |
Mar. 27 | Iam penitus disparuerant [They had completely disappeared] | QD | |
Mar. 29 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 6 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 8 | Nihil prorsus apparuit [No spot at all] | QD | |
Apr. 11 | Nihil [Nothing] | QD | |
Apr. 13 | Nihil [Nothing] | QD | |
May 20 | Hucusque nihil Macularum in Sole apparuit [So far no spots appeared on the Sun] | QD | |
Jun. 27 | Huc usque nihil in Sole apparuit, nisi unica exigua macula [So far nothing has appeared on the Sun, except a small spot] | QD | |
Jul. 13 | Macula rotunda circa ortum animadversa [a round spot sighted near the ortho] | AD | |
Jul. 14 | Macula adhuc major [A spot even greater] | AD | |
Jul. 16 | Macula eadem cum alia debiliori, et comitatu quarundam debilissimarum [The same spot with another weaker, accompanied by other very weak] | AD | |
Jul. 17 | Macula adhuc in Sole [Still spot in the Sun] | AD | |
Jul. 18 | Macula densior cum comitatu suo apparuit, sed inferior disparuerat [It has appeared a denser spot with its accompaniment, but the spot below disappeared] | AD | |
Jul. 27 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Aug. 6 | Tres Maculae minutissimae in sole circa Ortum [Three very tiny spots on the Sun, next to the ortho] | AD | |
Aug. 8 | Septem Maculae in una congerie conspectae. Septima vero multum in Sole erat promotior [Seven spots sighted in a single mass. The seventh had increased significantly on the sun] | AD | |
1654 | Aug. 25 | Duae Maculae in Sole [Two spots on the Sun] | AD |
Aug. 27 | Maculae iam exiverant [The spots were gone] | QD | |
Sep. 18 | Tres insignes maculae circa horizontem Ortivum conspectae [Three obvious spots observed near the eastern limb] | AD | |
Sep. 19 | Quatuor Maculae circa Solis centrum deprehensae [Four spots discovered near the center of the Sun] | AD | |
1657 | Dec. 17 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD |
Dec. 21 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Dec. 22 | Macula exigua rotunda [Small round spot] | AD | |
Dec. 23 | Macula decrescens [The spot is decreasing] | AD | |
Dec. 24 | Magis magisque decrescit [Increasingly decreases] | AD | |
Dec. 26 | Macula, quae in sole disco orta est, occidit Physice [The spot that had appeared on the disc of the Sun has disappeared physically] | QD | |
1658 | Nov. 3 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD |
Nov. 9 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
1659 | Feb. 23 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD |
Feb. 24 | Nil penitus macularum [No spot at all] | QD | |
Feb. 26 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Feb. 27 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 5 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 16 | Nihil [Nothing] | QD | |
Mar. 17 | Nihil penitus [Completely nothing] | QD | |
Mar. 23 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 29 | Nil prorsus [Nothing at all] | QD | |
Mar. 30 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 6 | Nullae maculae [No spots] | QD | |
Apr. 10 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 12 | Nihil [Nothing] | QD | |
Apr. 16 | Nihil [Nothing] | QD | |
Apr. 26 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 30 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 4 | Sol purus omnino [The Sun completely is pure] | QD | |
May 7 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 11 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 13 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 14 | Nil penitus [Completely nothing] | QD | |
May 18 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 24 | Nihil penitus in Sole [Completely nothing on the Sun] | QD | |
May 25 | Nihil in Sole apparuit [Nothing appeared on the Sun] | QD | |
May 27 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 29 | Nil prorsus deprehensum [Absolutely nothing is observed] | QD | |
Jun. 2 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Jun. 4 | Nihil [Nothing] | QD | |
Jun. 6 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Jun. 13 | Sol mundus [The Sun is clear] | QD | |
Jun. 16 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Jun. 19 | Nil in Sole [Nothing on the Sun] | QD | |
Jun. 20 | Sol purus [The Sun is pure] | QD | |
Jun. 22 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Jun. 30 | Nihil in Sole animadverti [I have not noticed anything on the Sun] | QD | |
Jul. 9 | Nil in Sole extitit [Nothing appeared on the Sun] | QD | |
Jul. 12 | Sol omnino purus [The Sun completely is pure] | QD | |
Jul. 20 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Aug. 9 | Sol vacuus [The Sun is empty] | QD | |
Aug. 11 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Aug. 17 | Nulla macula penitus [No spot at all] | QD | |
Aug. 27 | Nihil deprehensum [Nothing is observed] | QD | |
Aug. 29 | Omnino nihil apparuit [Nothing at all appeared] | QD | |
Sep. 14 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Sep. 22 | Nulla macula in Sole [No spot on the Sun] | QD | |
Nov. 7 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Nov. 8 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
1660 | Feb. 22 | Notabilis macula rotunda cum minori in medio Solis disco apparuit, qualem vix memini ab aliquot annis me observasse [Notable round spot appeared in the middle of the solar disc with a smaller one, like another that I remember observing a few years ago] | AD |
Feb. 23 | Binae maculae [Double sunspot] | AD | |
Feb. 24 | Hora 2 p.m. Maculae paullulum decreverant [2 pm. Spots slightly resolved] | AD | |
Feb. 26 | Hor. 12. 15 m. Macula maior minor erat altera vero evanuerat [12 hours 15 minutes. The greater spot had reduced. However, the other spot had disappeared] | AD | |
Feb. 29 | In Sole non nisi faculae dilutissimae et umbrae conspectae [On the Sun just very faint faculae and umbrae are observed] | AD | |
Mar. 1 | Sol omnino purus [Sun completely pure] | QD | |
Mar. 4 | Nihil pariter [Nothing similar] | QD | |
Mar. 7 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 11 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 12 | Sol purus apparuit [Sun appeared pure] | QD | |
Mar. 16 | Macula cum 2 minoribus circa Horizontem Ortivum conspecta, quas die 14 vel 13 Solem intrasse puto [A spot together with two smaller observed near the eastern limb. I think both entered the Sun on the 14th or 13th] | AD | |
Mar. 17 | Macula hesterna maior creverat, quam aliae quinque minores dilutissimae sequebantur [The major spot of yesterday had grown. It was followed by five other smaller and very faint] | AD | |
Mar. 19 | Maculae 5 in Sole [Five spots on the Sun] | AD | |
Mar. 20 | Maculae 4 [Four spots] | AD | |
Mar. 21 | Maculae 4, in Quadrante Occidentali Solis [Four spots in the western quadrant of the Sun] | AD | |
Mar. 22 | Maculae dilutiores quatuor [Four spots fainter] | QD | |
Mar. 28 | Nil penitus macularum [No spots at all] | QD | |
3 Apr. | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
11 Apr. | Nil in Sole apparuit [Nothing appeared on the Sun] | QD | |
20 Apr. | Nihil in Sole conspectum [Nothing is observed on the Sun] | QD | |
26 Apr. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
27 Apr. | Nulla penitus macula [Utterly without spots] | QD | |
28 Apr. | Nihil prorsus [Absolutely nothing] | QD | |
12 May | Insignis macula rotunda circa centrum Solis observata quam Solem intrasse puto die 6 circa [Conspicuous round spot near the center of the Sun. I think it entered the Sun about day 6] | AD | |
13 May | Macula centrum Solis iam transierat [The spot has already passed the center of the Sun] | AD | |
14 May | Macula fere eadem, sed ulterius promota more solito videbatur [Spot is almost the same, but further advanced than usual] | AD | |
15 May | Macula minor ac Horizonti Occidentali vicinior [Spot smaller and closer to western horizon] | AD | |
16 May | Macula haud procul Horizonte Occidentali [Spot not far western horizon] | AD | |
18 May | Macula circa Horizontem Occidentalem [Spot close to wertern horizon] | AD | |
19 May | Macula iam Solem exiverat [Spot already gone out from the Sun] | QD | |
20 May | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
21 May | Sol plane purus [Sun clearly pure] | QD | |
27 May | Nihil apparuit [Nothing appeared] | QD | |
2 Jun. | Nihil deprehensum [Nothing was discovered] | QD | |
10 Jun. | Quatuor notabiles maculae observatae sunt, tres circa solis centrum, quarta in quadrante Occidentali [Four notable spots are observed, three spots close to the center of the Sun, one spot in the western quadrant] | AD | |
11 Jun. | Maculae numero 5 conspectae sunt, sed 2 debiliores extiterunt [Five spots were sighted, but two were weaker] | AD | |
12 Jun. | Debilissimae maculae in Sole adhuc extiterunt [The weakest spots were still on the Sun] | AD | |
16 Jun. | Nil macularum apparuit [No spots appeared] | QD | |
19 Jun. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
9 Jul. | Macula insignis rotunda cum alia minore Australem Circa Horizontem Occidentalem apparuit, quam antes dies circiter 10 Solis discum ingressam esse puto [Great round spot appeared near the south-western horizon with another smaller spot that entered the solar disc about 10 days before, I think] | AD | |
12 Jul. | Maculae istae iam plane evanuerant. Sed alia longe minor, cum adhaerentibus aliis quibusdam minutisimis umbrisque conspecta circa Horizontem Ortivum, quae pridie Solis discum intraverat [The spots have clearly disappeared. But another smaller with a few others adhered to it and very tiny with umbrae is observed near the ortho horizon, which had entered the disc of the Sun the day before] | AD | |
13 Jul. | Maculae sere adhuc debiliores [The spots become weaker in the afternoon] | AD | |
19 Jul. | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
22 Jul. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
27 Jul. | Nihil prorsus in Sole [Absolutely nothing on the Sun] | QD | |
28 Jul. | Macula rotunda prope Horizontem Ortivum deprehensa, quae die hesterna primum Solem ingressa est [Round spot detected near the ortive horizon, which on the day before entered on the Sun for the first time] | AD | |
29 Jul. | Macula paullo creverat circa Horizontem Ortivum [The spot had grown a bit near the ortho horizon] | AD | |
31 Jul. | Macula non procul centro Solis commorabatur [Spot stayed not far from the center of the Sun] | AD | |
3 Aug. | Macula in Quadrante Occidentali [Spot in occidental quadrant] | AD | |
6 Aug. | Macula prope Horizontem Occidentalem longe minor apparuit [A much smaller spot has appeared near the western horizon] | AD | |
7 Aug. | Macula in Sole adhuc conspecta [Spot still on the sun] | AD | |
23 Aug. | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
28 Aug. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
24 Oct. | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
2 Nov. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
11 Nov. | Hora pom. 1 et 2 nihil quicquam in Sole visum [1 pm and 2 pm, nothing whatever has been seen on the Sun] | QD | |
26 Nov. | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
27 Nov. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
29 Nov. | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
1661 | Feb. 3 | Macula in Sole circa centrum Solare [Spot in the Sun, close to its center] | AD |
Feb. 5 | Macula Solis [Sunspot] | AD | |
Feb. 10 | Macula iam exiverat [Spot is gone] | QD | |
Mar. 2 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 10 | Nihil prorsus [Nothing at all] | QD | |
Mar. 11 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 14 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 16 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 20 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 21 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 16 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 21 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
May 1 | Nil prorsus macularum [No spot at all] | QD | |
May 2 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
May 3 | Nulla quidem macula, sed Mercurius in disco Solis conspectus [No spot, but Mercury is observed on the solar disc] | QD | |
May 4 | Nil quicquam macularum [Ninguna mancha] [No spot] | QD | |
May 23 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Jun. 3 | Nulla macula [No spot] | QD | |
Jul. 22 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
1663 | Mar. 15 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD |
Mar. 16 | Nil Macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Mar. 17 | Nil penitus in Sole [Completely nothing on the Sun] | QD | |
Mar. 19 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 2 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 3 | Nil macularum [No spot] | QD | |
Apr. 4 | Nihil prorsus [Nothing at all] | QD | |
1671 | Aug. 9 | Macula Solis notabilis conspecta Hamburgi a Cl. Picardo die 13. Stetini vero a die 8 ad 18, quam etiam Lipsiae viderunt [A clear sunspot observed by Cl. Picardo in Hamburg on the 13th. Stetini watched it from day 8 to day 18, which also was seen in Leipzig] | AD |
Sep. 5 | Macula in Sole [Sunspot on the Sun] | AD | |
Sep. 16 | Nulla Macula in Sole [No sunspot on the Sun] | QD | |
Sep. 30 | Nulla in Sole Macula [No sunspot on the Sun] | QD | |
Oct. 2 | Nihil in Sole apparuit [Nothing appeared on the Sun] | QD | |
1675 | Jun. 22 | Nulla Macula [No spot] | QD |
Jun. 23 | Nulla Macula [No spot] | QD |
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Carrasco, V.M.S., Álvarez, J.V. & Vaquero, J.M. Sunspots During the Maunder Minimum from Machina Coelestis by Hevelius. Sol Phys 290, 2719–2732 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-015-0767-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-015-0767-z