Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Dynamic Model of Adolescent Friendship Networks, Parental Influences, and Smoking

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Peer and parental influences are critical socializing forces shaping adolescent development, including the co-evolving processes of friendship tie choice and adolescent smoking. This study examines aspects of adolescent friendship networks and dimensions of parental influences shaping friendship tie choice and smoking, including parental support, parental monitoring, and the parental home smoking environment using a Stochastic Actor-Based model. With data from three waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health of youth in grades 7 through 12, including the In-School Survey, the first wave of the In-Home survey occurring 6 months later, and the second wave of the In-Home survey, occurring one year later, this study utilizes two samples based on the social network data collected in the longitudinal saturated sample of sixteen schools. One consists of twelve small schools (n = 1,284, 50.93 % female), and the other of one large school (n = 976, 48.46 % female). The findings indicated that reciprocity, choosing a friend of a friend as a friend, and smoking similarity increased friendship tie choice behavior, as did parental support. Parental monitoring interacted with choosing friends who smoke in affecting friendship tie choice, as at higher levels of parental monitoring, youth chose fewer friends that smoked. A parental home smoking context conducive to smoking decreased the number of friends adolescents chose. Peer influence and a parental home smoking environment conducive to smoking increased smoking, while parental monitoring decreased it in the large school. Overall, peer and parental factors affected the coevolution of friendship tie choice and smoking, directly and multiplicatively.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abel, G., Plumridge, L., & Graham, P. (2002). Peers, networks or relationships: Strategies for understanding social dynamics as determinants of smoking behaviour. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 9(4), 325–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, C., Piazza, M., Mekos, D., & Valente, T. (2001). Peers, schools, and adolescent cigarette smoking. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29(1), 22–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J. P., Porter, M. R., & McFarland, F. C. (2006). Leaders and followers in adolescent close friendships: Susceptibility to peer influence as a predictor of risky behavior, friendship instability, and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 155–172.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J. P., Porter, M. R., McFarland, F. C., Marsh, P., & McElhaney, K. B. (2005). The two faces of adolescents’ success with peers: Adolescent popularity, social adaptation, and deviant behavior. Child Development, 76(3), 747–760.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ary, D. V., Duncan, T. E., Biglan, A., Metzler, C. W., Noell, J. W., & Smolkowski, K. (1999). Development of adolescent problem behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27(2), 141–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavorial change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K. (1992). Family, personality, and adolescent problem behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 54(1), 69–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 11(1), 56–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bearman, P. S., Moody, J., & Stovel, K. (2004). Chains of affection: The structure of adolescent romantic and sexual networks. American Journal of Sociology, 110(1), 44–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biglan, A., Duncan, T. E., Ary, D. V., & Smolkowski, K. (1995). Peer and parental influences on adolescent tobacco use. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 18(4), 315–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogenschneider, K., Wu, M.-Y., Raffaelli, M., & Tsay, J. C. (1998). Parent influences on adolescent peer orientation and substance use: The interface of parenting practices and values. Child Development, 69(6), 1672–1688.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bond, L., Butler, H., Thomas, L., Carlin, J., Glover, S., Bowes, G., et al. (2007). Social and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40, 9–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). New York: Basic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brechwald, W., & Prinstein, M. (2011). Beyond homophily: A decade of advances in understanding peer influence processes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 166–179.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, B. B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S. D., & Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64(2), 467–482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buhrmester, D. (1990). Intimacy of friendship, interpersonal competence, and adjustment during preadolescence and adolescence. Child Development, 61(4), 1101–1111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buhrmester, D., & Furman, W. (1986). The changing functions of friendship in childhood: A neo-Sullivanian perspective. In V. J. Derlega & B. A. Winstead (Eds.), Friendship and social interaction (pp. 41–62). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cheadle, J. E., & Goosby, B. J. (2012). The small-school friendship dynamics of adolescent depressive symptoms. Society and Mental Health, 2(2), 99–119.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheadle, J. E., & Schwadel, E. (2012). The ‘friendship dynamics of religion’, or the ‘religious dynamics of friendship’? A social network analysis of adolescents who attend small schools. Social Science Research, 41(5), 1198–1212.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chuang, Y.-C., Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., & Foshee, V. A. (2005). Neighborhood influences on adolescent cigarette and alcohol use: Mediating effects through parent and peer behaviors. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46(2), 187–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clayton, S. (1991). Gender differences in psychosocial determinants of adolescent smoking. Journal of School Health, 61(3), 115–120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. (1961). The adolescent society: the social life of the teenager and its impact on education. New York, NY: The Free Press of Glencoe.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLay, D., Laursen, B., Kiuru, N., Salmela-Aro, K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2013). Selecting and Retaining friends on the basis of cigarette smoking similarity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23(3), 464–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J. (2013). Stochastic agent-based modeling of influence and selection in adolescence: Current status and future directions in understanding the dynamics of peer contagion. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23(3), 596–603.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & McMahon, R. J. (1998). Parental monitoring and the prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior: A conceptual and empirical formulation. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1(1), 61–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., & Tipscord, J. M. (2011). Peer contagion in child and adolescent social and emotional development. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 189–214.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Engels, R. C. M. E., Vitaro, F., Den Exter Blokland, E., De Kemp, R., & Scholte, R. H. J. (2004). Influence and selection processes in friendships and adolescent smoking behaviour: The role of parental smoking. Journal of Adolescence, 27(5), 531–544.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ennett, S. T., & Bauman, K. E. (1993). Peer group structure and adolescent cigarette smoking: A social network analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34(3), 226–236.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ennett, S. T., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A., Faris, R., Foshee, V. A., Cai, L., et al. (2006). The peer context of adolescent substance use: Findings from social network analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2), 159–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falbo, T., Lein, L., & Amador, N. A. (2001). Parental involvement during the transition to high school. Journal of Adolescent Research, 16(5), 511–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garbarino, J. (1980). Some thoughts on school size and its effects on adolescent development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9(1), 19–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano, P. C. (2003). Relationships in adolescence. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 257–281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giovino, G. A., Henningfield, J. E., Tomar, S. L., Escobedo, L. G., & Slade, J. (1995). Epidemiology of tobacco use and dependence. Epidemiologic Reviews, 17(1), 48–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamm, J. V. (2000). Do birds of a feather flock together? The variable bases for African American, Asian American, and European American Adolescents’ selection of similar friends. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 209–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Handcock, M. S. (2002). Missing data for social networks.

  • Harris, K. M., Halpern, C. T., Whitsel, E., Hussey, J., Tabor, J., Entzel, P., & Udry, J. R. (2009). The national longitudinal study of adolescent health: Research design. http://www.cpc.unc.edu/projects/addhealth/design.

  • Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. Berkley, CA: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homans, G. C. (1974). Social behavior: Its elementary forms (2nd ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B. (1978a). Homophily, selection, and socialization in adolescent friendships. American Journal of Sociology, 84(2), 427–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B. (1978b). Similarity in real-life adolescent friendship pairs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(3), 306–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelder, S. H., Perry, C. L., Klepp, K. I., & Lytle, L. L. (1994). Longitudinal tracking of adolescent smoking, physical activity, and food choice behaviors. American Journal of Public Health, 84(7), 1121–1126.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. A., St. Lawrence, J. S., Diaz, Y. E., Stevenson, L. Y., Hauth, A. C., Brasfield, T. L. et al. (1991). HIV risk behavior reduction following intervention with key opinion leaders of population: An experimental analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 81(2), 168–171.

  • Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36(3), 366–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiesner, J., Poulin, F., & Dishion, T. J. (2010). Adolescent substance use with friends: Moderating and mediating effects of parental monitoring and peer activity contexts. Merrill Palmer Q (Wayne State Univ Press), 56(4), 529–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirke, D. M. (2004). Chain reactions in adolescents’ cigarette, alcohol and drug use: Similarity through peer influence or the patterning of ties in peer networks? Social Networks, 26(1), 3–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knoester, C., Haynie, D. L., & Stephens, C. M. (2006). Parenting practices and adolescents’ friendship networks. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68(5), 1247–1260.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kobus, K. (2003). Peers and adolescent smoking. Addiction, 98(Suppl s1), 37–55.

  • Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Merton, R. K. (1954). Friendship as a social process: A substantive and methodological analysis. In M. Berger, T. Abel, & C. H. Page (Eds.), Freedom and control in modern society (pp. 18–66). New York, NY: Van Nostrand.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leeuw, R. N. H. D., Scholte, R. H. J., Harakeh, Z., Leeuwe, J. F. J. V., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2008). Parental smoking-specific communication, adolescents’ smoking behavior and friendship selection. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 1229–1241.

  • Li, X., Stanton, B., & Feigelman, S. (2000). Impact of perceived parental monitoring on adolescent risk behavior over 4 years. Journal of Adolescent Health, 27(1), 49–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathys, C., Burk, W. J., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2013). Popularity as a moderator of peer selection and socialization of adolescent alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23(3), 513–523.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, K. A. (2002). Friends: The role of peer influence across adolescent risk behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31(4), 267–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mercken, L., Candel, M., Willems, P., & De Vries, H. (2007). Disentangling social selection and social influence effects on adolescent smoking: The importance of reciprocity in friendships. Addiction, 102(9), 1483–1492.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mercken, L., Steglich, C., Sinclair, P., Holliday, J., & Moore, L. (2012). A longitudinal social network analysis of peer influence, peer selection, and smoking behavior among adolescents in British schools. Health Psychology, 31(4), 450–459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nye, F. I. (1958). Family relationships and delinquent behavior. New York, NY: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orlando, M., Tucker, J. S., Ellickson, P. L., & Klein, D. J. (2004). Developmental trajectories of cigarette smoking and their correlates from early adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(3), 400–410.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parke, R. D., & Bhavnagri, N. P. (1989). Parents as managers of children’s peer relationships. In D. Belle (Ed.), Children’s social networks and social supports (pp. 241–259). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parke, R. D., & Ladd, G. (1992). Family-peer relationships. Hillsdale, NY: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole, E. D., & Regoli, R. M. (1979). Parental support, delinquent friends, and delinquency: A test of interaction effects. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 70(2), 188–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ripley, R. M., Snijders, T. A. B., Boda, Z., Vörös, A., & Preciado, P. (2014). Manual for SIENA version 4.0 (version February 17, 2014). http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/siena/.

  • Robins, G. (2013). A tutorial on methods for the modeling and analysis of social network data. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 57, 261–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H., Dwyer, K. M., Booth-LaForce, C., Kim, A. H., Burgess, K. B., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2004). Attachment, friendship, and psychosocial functioning in early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 24, 326–356.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C., & Berndt, T. J. (1990). In S. S. Feldman & G. R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 277–307). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simons, R. M., Chao, W., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001). Quality of parenting as mediator of the effect of childhood defiance on adolescent friendship choices and delinquency: A growth curve analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63(1), 63–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simons-Morton, B. G. (2002). Prospective analysis of peer and parent influences on smoking initiation among early adolescents. Prevention Science, 3(4), 275–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simons-Morton, B. G., Chen, R., Abroms, L., & Haynie, D. L. (2004). Latent growth curve analyses of peer and parent influences on smoking progression among early adolescents. Health Psychology, 23(6), 612–621.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpkins, S. D., Schaefer, D. R., Price, C. D., & Vest, A. E. (2013). Adolescent friendships, BMI, and physical activity: Untangling selection and influence through longitudinal social network analysis. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23(3), 537–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snijders, T. A. B. (2011). Network Dynamics. In J. Scott & P. J. Carrington (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of social network analysis (pp. 501–513). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snijders, T. A. B., van de Bunt, G. G., & Steglich, C. E. (2010). Introduction to stochastic actor-based models for network dynamics. Social Networks, 32, 44–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2000). Parental monitoring: A reinterpretation. Child Development, 71(4), 1072–1085.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L., Fletcher, A., & Darling, N. (1994). Parental monitoring and peer influences on adolescent substance use. Pediatrics, 93(6), 1060–1064.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steuber, T. L., & Danner, F. (2006). Adolescent smoking and depression: Which comes first? Addictive Behaviors, 31(1), 133–136.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, E. H. (1947). Principles of criminology (4th ed.). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, E. H., & Cressey, D. R. (1970). Criminology (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott.

  • Szabo, E., White, V., & Hayman, J. (2006). Can home smoking restrictions influence adolescents’ smoking behaviors if their parents and friends smoke? Addictive Behaviors, 31, 2298–2303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urberg, K. A. (1992). Locus of peer influence: Social crowd and best friend. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21(4), 439–450.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urberg, K. A., Luo, Q., Pilgrim, C., & Degirmencioglu, S. M. (2003). A two-stage model of peer influence in adolescent substance use: Individual and relationship-specific differences in susceptibility to influence. Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1243–1256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valente, T. W., Unger, J. B., & Johnson, C. A. (2005). Do popular students smoke? The association between popularity and smoking among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(4), 323–329.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veenstra, R., Dijkstra, J. K., Steglich, C. E., & Van Zalk, M. H. W. (2013). Network-behavior dynamics. Jounal of Research on Adolescence, 23(3), 399–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, M. Q., Fitzhugh, E. C., Westerfield, R. C., & Eddy, J. M. (1995). Family and peer influences on smoking behavior among American adolescents: An age trend. Journal of Adolescent Health, 16(3), 200–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman, S., & Faust, K. (1994). Social network analysis: Methods and applications. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A., & Cleary, S. D. (1996). How are social support effects mediated: A test with parental support and adolescent substance use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(5), 937–952.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Younisis, J. (1980). Parents and peers in social development: A Sullivan-Piaget perspective. Chicago, IL: Univeristy of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers, and friends. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Grant #1 R21 DA031152-01A1, Cascades of Network Structure and Function: Pathways to Adolescent Substance Use. National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) Health, administered through the Program in Public Health, UC Irvine.

Author contributions

CML conceived of the study and took the lead in writing the article; CW conducted all study analyses and co-wrote the Methods and Results sections with JRH; CTB aided in data analysis, study conception, and in writing the article; RJ conducted all tasks related to data management and assisted in writing the article; DST aided in study conception and measurement; and JRH aided in the conception of the study, and had a significant role in writing, measurement issues, and data analysis. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Program in Public Health, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Cynthia M. Lakon, Cheng Wang & David S. Timberlake

  2. Departments of Sociology, Statistics and EECS, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Carter T. Butts

  3. Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Rupa Jose

  4. Departments of Criminology, Law and Society, and Sociology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    John R. Hipp

Authors
  1. Cynthia M. Lakon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cheng Wang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Carter T. Butts
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rupa Jose
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. David S. Timberlake
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. John R. Hipp
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cynthia M. Lakon.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lakon, C.M., Wang, C., Butts, C.T. et al. A Dynamic Model of Adolescent Friendship Networks, Parental Influences, and Smoking. J Youth Adolescence 44, 1767–1786 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0187-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0187-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation