Abstract
Existential therapy’s solid evidence-based foundation has not been adequately articulated to date. One challenge to this task is the lack of a singular or unified existential approach. Despite this, there remain shared themes that are common across the approaches to existential therapy. A second challenge is that many existential therapists resist Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology (EBPP), viewing it as excessively restrictive. However, EBPP is more inclusive than previous approaches to evaluating therapeutic effectiveness, such as the empirically supported treatment movement. We maintain that EBPP fits well with existential therapy and supports its practice. This paper identifies three pillars of existential psychology as its (1) relational focus, (2) emphasis on working with emotions and experience, and (3) meaning-centered approach. Each of these pillars have a strong foundation in empirical research, clinical competencies, and ability to be adapted to individual and cultural differences, which have been identified as the core of EBPP (American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology 2006). While few outcome studies specifically on existential psychotherapy exist, there is extensive research supporting the core practices that comprise existential therapy practice.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Addad, M., & Himi, H. (2009). Logotherapy—theoretical aspects and field studies in Israel. In A. Batthyany & J. Levinson (Eds.), Existential therapy of meaning: Handbook of logotherapy and existential analysis (pp. 445–461). Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Thesen.
Alsup, R. (2008). Existentialism of personalism: A Native American perspective. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 121–127). New York: Routledge.
American Psychological Association Presidential Task. (2006). Evidence-based practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 61, 271–285.
Bao, Z. (2009). Zhungzi’s view of freedom. In L. Hoffman, M. Yang, F. J. Kaklauskas, & A. Chan (Eds.), Existential psychology east-west (pp. 221–231). Colorado Springs, CO: University of the Rockies Press.
Breitbart, W., Rosenfeld, B., Gibson, C., Pessin, H., Poppito, S., Nelson, C., et al. (2010). Meaning-centered group psychotherapy for patients with advanced cancer: A pilot randomized controlled trial. Psycho-Oncology, 19, 21–28.
Brown, L. S. (2008). Feminist therapy as a meaning-making practice: Where there is no power, where is the meaning? In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 130–140). New York: Routledge.
Bugental, J. F. T. (1978). Psychotherapy and process: The fundamentals of an existential-humanistic approach. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Bugental, J. F. T. (1987). The art of the psychotherapist: How to develop the skills that take psychotherapy beyond science. New York: Norton & Company.
Bugental, J. F. T. (1990). Intimate journeys. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Bugental, J. F. T. (1999). Psychotherapy isn’t what you think: Bringing the psychotherapeutic engagement into the living moment. Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker, & Co.
Bunting, K., & Hayes, S. C. (2008). Language and meaning: Acceptance and commitment therapy and the EI model. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 217–234). New York: Routledge.
Cleare-Hoffman, H. P., Hoffman, L., & Wilson, S. S. (2013, August). Existential therapy, culture, and therapist factors in evidence-based practice. In K. Keenan (Chair), Evidence in support of existential-humanistic psychotherapy: Revitalizing the third force. Symposium presented at the 121st Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, HI.
Comas-Diaz, L. (2008). Latino psychospirituality. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 100–109). New York: Routledge.
Cooper, M. (2003). Existential therapies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cozolino, L. (2002). The neuroscience of psychotherapy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Dallas, E., Georganda, E. T., Harisiadis, A., & Zymnis-Georgaios, K. (2013). Zhi mian and “oistios” of life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 53, 252–260.
Dezutter, J., Casalin, S., Wachholtz, A., Luyckx, K., Hekking, J., & Vandewiele, W. (2013). Meaning in life: An important factor for the psychological well-being of chronically ill patients? Rehabilitation Psychology, 58, 334–341.
Dorman, D. (2008). Dante’s cure: Schizophrenia and the two-person journey. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 236–245). New York: Routledge.
Duncan, B. L., Miller, S. D., Wampold, B. E., & Hubble, M. A. (Eds.). (2009). The heart and soul of change: Delivering what works in therapy (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Elkins, D. N. (2009). Humanistic psychology: A clinical manifesto. A critique of clinical psychology and the need for progressive alternatives. Colorado Springs, CO: University of the Rockies Press.
Fillion, L., Duval, S., Dumont, S., Gagnon, P., Tremblay, I., Bairati, I., et al. (2009). Impact of meaning-centered intervention on job satisfaction and on quality of life among palliative care nurses. Psycho-Oncology, 18, 1300–1310.
Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy(3rd ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. (Original work published in 1959).
Greenberg, L. S., Korman, L. M., & Paivio, S. C. (2001). Emotion in humanistic psychotherapy. In D. J. Cain & J. Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic psychotherapies: Handbook of research and practice (pp. 499–530). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Greening, T. (1992). Existential challenges and responses. The Humanistic Psychologist, 20(1), 111–115.
Halama, P. (2009). Research instruments for investigating meaning of life and other logotherapeutic constructs. In A. Batthyany & J. Levinson (Eds.), Existential therapy of meaning: Handbook of logotherapy and existential analysis (pp. 415–444). Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Thesen.
Hirsch, B. Z. (2009). Logotherapy—the theory—the logotherapist—The client. In A. Batthyany & J. Levinson (Eds.), Existential therapy of meaning: Handbook of logotherapy and existential analysis (pp. 39–52). Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Thesen.
Hoffman, L. (2008). An existential approach to working with religious and spiritual clients. In K. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guideposts to the core of practice (pp. 187–202). New York: Routledge Press.
Hoffman, L. (2009a). Introduction to existential psychotherapy in a cross-cultural context: An East-West dialogue. In L. Hoffman, M. Yang, F. J. Kaklauskas, & A. Chan (Eds.), Existential psychology east-west (pp. 1–67). Colorado Springs, CO: University of the Rockies Press.
Hoffman, L. (2009b). Gordo’s ghost: An introduction to existential perspectives on myths. In L. Hoffman, M. Yang, F. J. Kaklauskas, & A. Chan (Eds.), Existential psychology east-west (pp. 259–274). Colorado Springs, CO: University of the Rockies Press.
Hoffman, L. (2009c). Knowing and the unknown: An existential epistemology in a postmodern context. Humana. Mente, 11, 97–110.
Hoffman, L., & Cleare-Hoffman, H. P. (2011). Existential therapy and emotions: Lessons from cross-cultural exchange. The Humanistic Psychologist, 39, 261–267.
Hoffman, L., Cleare-Hoffman, H. P., & Jackson, T. (2014). Humanistic psychology and multiculturalism: History, current status, and advancements. In K. J. Schneider, J. F. Pierson, & J. F. T. Bugental (Eds.), The handbook of humanistic psychology: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hoffman, L. Dias, J., & Soholm, H. C. (2012, August). Existential-humanistic therapy as a model for evidence-based practice. In S. Rubin (Chair), Evidence in support of existential-humanistic psychology: Revitalizing the ‘third force.’ Symposium presented at the 120th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.
Hoffman, L., Stewart, S., Warren, D., & Meek, L. (2009a). Toward a sustainable myth of self: An existential response to the postmodern condition. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49, 135–173.
Hoffman, L., Yang, M., Kaklauskas, F. J., & Chan, A. (Eds.). (2009b). Existential psychology east-west. Colorado Springs, CO: University of the Rockies Press.
Holland, J. M., Neimeyer, R. A., Currier, J. M., & Berman, J. S. (2007). The efficacy of personal construct therapy: A comprehensive review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63, 93–107.
Jafary, F., Farahbakhsh, K., Shafiadabi, A., & Delavar, A. (2011). Quality of life and menopause: Developing a theoretical model based on meaning in life, self-efficacy beliefs, and body image. Aging and Mental Health, 15, 630–637.
Kang, S. M., Shaver, P. R., Sue, S., Min, K. H., & Jing, H. (2003). Culture-specific patterns in the prediction of life satisfaction: Roles of emotion, relationship quality, and self-esteem. Personality and Society Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1596–1608.
King, L. A., & Hicks, J. A. (2012). Positive affect and meaning in life (Chapter 6; Kindle version). In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), Meaning: Theories, research, and applications. New York: Taylor & Francis.
Krause, N. (2012). Healthy aging. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), Meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.; Chapter 19; Kindle version). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Krug, O. (2009). James Bugental and Irvin Yalom: Two masters of existential therapy cultivate presence in the therapeutic encounter. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 49(3), 329–354. doi:10.1177/0022167809334001.
Leitner, L. M., Faidley, A. J., & Celentana, M. A. (2000). Diagnosing human meaning making: An experiential constructivist approach. In R. A. Neimeyer & J. D. Raskin (Eds.), Constructions of disorder: Meaning-making frameworks for psychotherapy (pp. 175–203). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Maddi, S. R., Khoshaba, D. M., Harvey, R. H., Faxel, M., & Resurreccion, N. (2011). The personality construct of hardiness, V: Relationships with the construction of existential meaning in life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 51, 369–388.
Mascaro, N., & Rosen, D. H. (2006). The role of existential meaning as a buffer against stress. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 46, 168–190.
May, R. (1991). The cry for myth. New York: Delta.
Monheit, J. (2008). A lesbian and gay perspective: The case of Marcia. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 140–146). New York: Routledge.
Neimeyer, R. A., Baldwin, S. A., & Gillies, J. (2006). Continuing bond and reconstructing meaning: Mitigating complications in bereavement. Death Studies, 20, 715–738.
Norcross, J. C. (1987). A rational and empirical analysis of existential psychotherapy. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 27(1), 41–68.
Norcross, J. C. (Ed.). (2002). Psychotherapy relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients. New York: Oxford University Press.
Norcross, J. C. (2009). The therapeutic relationship. In B. L. Duncan, S. D. Miller, B. E. Wampold, & M. A. Hubble (Eds.), The heart and soul of change: Delivering what works in therapy (2nd ed., pp. 113–141). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Norcross, J. C., Beutler, L. E., & Levant, R. F. (Eds.). (2006). Evidence-based practices in mental health: Debate and dialogue on the fundamental questions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Norcross, J. C., & Lambert, M. J. (2010). Evidence-based therapy relationships. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Evidence-based therapy relationships. Retrieved from http://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov/Norcross.aspx.
Pan, J. Y., Wong, D. F. K., Joubert, L., & Chan, C. L. W. (2008). The protective function of meaning of life and life satisfaction among Chinese students in Australia and Hong Kong: A cross-cultural comparative study. Journal of American College Health, 57, 221–231.
Raskin, J. D. (2008). The evolution of constructivism. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 21(1), 1–24.
Rice, D. L. (2008). An African American perspective: The case of Darrin. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 110–121). New York: Routledge.
Richert, A. J. (2010). Integrating existential and narrative therapy: A theoretical base for eclectic practice. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.
Roepke, A. M., Jayawickreme, E., & Riffle, O. M. (2013). Meaning and health: A systematic review. Applied Research in Quality of Life: Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11482-013-9288-9.
Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: a therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Company.
Salvatore, S., Gelo, S., Gennaro, A., Manzo, S., & Radaideh, A. A. (2010). Looking at the psychotherapy process as an intersubjective dynamic of meaning-making: A case study with discourse flow analysis. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 23, 195–230.
Schneider, K. J. (Ed.). (2008). Existential integrative psychotherapy: Guideposts to the core of practice. New York: Routledge.
Schneider, K. J. (2012). The case of Allison: An existential-integrative inquiry into death anxiety, groundlessness, and the quest for meaning and awe. In P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), Meaning, mortality, and choice: The social psychology of existential concerns (pp. 339–352). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Schneider, K. J., & Krug, O. T. (2010). Existential humanistic therapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Serlin, I. (2008). Women and the midlife crisis: The Anne Sexton complex. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 146–163). New York: Routledge.
Solomon, S. (2012). The social psychology of meaning, mortality, and choice: An integrative perspective on existential concerns. In P. R. Shaver & M. Mikulincer (Eds.), Meaning, mortality, and choice: The social psychology of existential concerns (pp. 401–417). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Spinelli, E. (1997). Tales of un-knowing: Eight stories of existential therapy. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press.
Stark, P. L., Ulrich, B., & Duffy, M. E. (2009). The meaning of suffering experiences. In A. Batthyany & J. Levinson (Eds.), Existential therapy of meaning: Handbook of logotherapy and existential analysis (pp. 487–502). Phoenix, AZ: Zeig, Tucker & Theisen.
Steger, M. F. (2012). Experiencing meaning in life: Optimal functioning at the nexus of well-being, psychopathology, and spirituality. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), Meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.; Chapter 8; Kindle version). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Tavernier, R., & Willoughby, T. (2012). Adolescent turning points: The association between meaning-making and psychological well-being. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1058–1068.
Thompson, N. J., Coker, J., Krause, J. S., & Henry, E. (2003). Purpose in life as a mediator of adjustment after spinal cord injury. Rehabilitation Psychology, 48, 100–108.
van Hees, M. M., Rotter, T., Ellermann, T., & Evers, S. A. (2013). The effectiveness of individual interpersonal psychotherapy as a treatment for major depressive disorder in adult outpatients: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry, 1, 1–10. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-13-22.
Vasquez, M. T. (2007). Cultural difference and the therapeutic alliance: An evidence-based analysis. American Psychologist, 62, 878–885. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.8.878.
Vontress, C. E. (1979). Cross-cultural counseling: An existential approach. Personnel & Guidance Journal, 58(2), 117–122.
Walsh, R. A., & McElwain, B. (2001). Existential psychotherapies. In D. J. Cain & J. Seeman (Eds.), Humanistic psychotherapies: Handbook of research and practice (pp. 253–278). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Wampold, B. E. (2001). The great psychotherapy debate: Models, methods, and findings. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wampold, B. E. (2008). Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Coming of age. Psyccritiques, 53(6), doi:10.1037/a0011070.
Wampold, B. E. (2009a). Research evidence for the common factors models: A historically situated perspective. In B. L. Duncan, S. D. Miller, B. E. Wampold, & M. A. Hubble (Eds.), The heart and soul of change: Delivering what works in therapy (2nd ed., pp. 49–81). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Wampold, B. (2009b). How psychotherapy works. http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2009/12/wampold.aspx.
Wampold, B. E., Goodheart, C. D., & Levant, R. F. (2007). Clarification and elaboration on Evidence-Based practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 62, 616–618.
Wang, X. (2011). Zhi mian and existential psychology. The Humanistic Psychologist, 39, 240–246.
Watson, J. C., Greenberg, L. S., & Lietaer, G. (2010). Relating process to outcome in person-centered and experiential psychotherapies: The role of the relationship conditions and clients’ experiencing. In M. Cooper, J. C. Watson, & D. Holldampf (Eds.), Person-centered and experiential therapies work: A review of the research on counseling, psychotherapy and related practices (pp. 132–163). Ross-on-Wye, UK: PCCS Books.
Whelton, W. J. (2004). Emotional processes in psychotherapy: Evidence across therapeutic modalities. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 11, 58–71.
Wolfe, B. E. (2008). Existential issues in anxiety disorders and their treatment. In K. J. Schneider (Ed.), Existential-integrative psychotherapy: Guidepost to the core of practice (pp. 204–216). New York: Routledge.
Wong, P. T. P. (2012a). Toward a dual-systems model of what makes life worth living. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), Meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.; Chapter 1; Kindle version). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Wong, P. T. P. (2012b). From logotherapy to meaning-centered counseling and therapy. In P. T. P. Wong (Ed.), Meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.; Chapter 28; Kindle version). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
Yalom, I. D. (1980). Existential psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.
Yalom, I. D. (1989). Love’s executioner and other tales of psychotherapy. New York NY: Harper Perennial.
Yalom, I. D. (1999). Momma and the meaning of life: Tales of psychotherapy. New York: Perennial.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hoffman, L., Vallejos, L., Cleare-Hoffman, H.P. et al. Emotion, Relationship, and Meaning as Core Existential Practice: Evidence-Based Foundations. J Contemp Psychother 45, 11–20 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-014-9277-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10879-014-9277-9