Abstract
In this report, the development of an online, noninvasive, measurement method of the biofilm thickness in a liquid phase is presented. The method is based in the analysis of the ultrasound wave pulse-echo behavior in a liquid phase reproducing the real reactor conditions. It does not imply the removal of the biomass from the support or any kind of intervention in the support (pipes) to detect and perform the measurements (non-invasiveness). The developed method allows for its sensor to be easily and quickly mounted and unmounted in any location along a pipe or reactor wall. Finally, this method is an important innovation because it allows the thickness measurement of a biofilm, in liquid phase conditions that can be used in monitoring programs, to help in scheduling cleaning actions to remove the unwanted biofilm, in several application areas, namely in potable water supply pipes.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Angell, P., Arrage, A. A., Mittelmann, M. W., & White, D. C. (1993). Online, non-destructive biomass determination of bacterial biofilms by fluorimetry. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 18, 317–327.
Barbeau, J., Gauthier, C., & Payment, P. (1998). Biofilms, infectious agents, and dental unit waterlines: a review. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 44(11), 1019–1028.
Bastos, F., Mesquita, R. B. R., Ferreira, J. R. M., Fernandes, S. M. V., Castro, P. M. L., & Rangel, A. O. S. S. (2002). On-line monitoring of a trickling filter during treatment of chlorobenzene contaminated waste. Proceedings of the International Specialized Conference on Biofilm Monitoring, Porto, March 17–20, 218–221.
Brito, A. G., & Melo, L. F. (1999). Mass transfer coefficients within anaerobic biofilms: effects of external liquid velocity. Water Research, 33(17), 3673–3678.
Carrión, M., Asaff, A., & Thalasso, F. (2003). Respiration rate measurement in a submerged fixed bed reactor. Water Science and Technology, 47(5), 201–204.
Characklis, W. G. (1990). Laboratory biofilme reactors. In W. G. Charaklis, K. C. Marshall (Eds.), Biofilms. New York: Jonh Wiley and Sons.
Chenoweth, J. M. (1988). Liquid fouling monitoring equipment. In L. F. Melo, T. R. Bott, & C. A. Bernardo (Eds.), Fouling science and technology (pp. 49–65). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Cristiani, P., Perboni, G., Hilbert, L., Mollica, A., & Gubner, R. (2002). Experiences on MIC monitoring by electrochemical techniques. Proceedings of the International Specialized Conference on Biofilm Monitoring, Porto, March 17–20, 197–200.
Delille, A., Quilés, F., & Humbert, F. (2007). In situ monitoring of the nascent Pseudomonas fluorescens biofilm response to variations in the dissolved organic carbon level in low-nutrient water by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73, 5782–5788.
Dias, C. J. (1988). Guia Prático de Laboratório de Física. Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia—Universidade Nova de Lisboa
Flemming, H.-C. (2006). Biofouling: unexpected, underestimated, undertreated. Mülheim an der Ruhr: Biofilm Center. IWW Water Centre.
Fonseca, A. C., Greenberg, A. R., & Hernandez, M. (2002). Real time biofilm detection using ultrasonic frequency-domain reflectometry (UFDR). Proceedings of the International Specialized Conference on Biofilm Monitoring, Porto, March 17–20.
Freitas dos Santos, L. M., Livingston, A. G. (1995). Membrane-attached biofilms for VOC wastewater treatment I: Novel in situ biofilm thickness measurement technique. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 47(1), 82–89.
Gjaltema, A., & Griebe, T. (1995). Laboratory biofilm reactors and on-line monitoring: report of the discussion session. Water Science and Technology, 32(8), 257–261.
Haisch, C., & Niessner, R. (2007). Visualisation of transient processes in biofilms by optical coherence tomography. Water Research, 41, 2467–2472.
Janknecht, P., & Melo, L. F. (2004). Online biofilm monitoring. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 2, 269–283.
Jubilado, N. (2011). Desenvolvimento de um micro sensor para medição on-line da espessura de um biofilme em ambientes submersos. Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa. MSci. Thesis.
Kappelhof, J. W. N. M., Vrouwenvelder, H. S., Schaap, M., Kruithof, J.C., van der Kooij, D., & Schippers, J. C. (2002). An in situ biofouling monitor for membrane systems. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Membranes in Drinking and Industrial Water Production (MDIW), Mulheim/Ruhr, September 22–26.
Klahre, J., & Flemming, H. (2000). Monitoring of biofouling in papermill process waters. Water Research, 34(14), 3657–3665.
Knudsen, J. G. (1981). Apparatus and techniques for measurement of fouling of heat transfer surfaces. In E. F. C. Somerscales & J. G. Knudsen (Eds.), Fouling of heat transfer equipment (p. 57). Washington: Hemisphere.
Kujundzic, E., Fonseca, C., Evans, E., Peterson, M., Greenberg, A. R., & Hernandez, M. (2007). Ultrasonic monitoring of early stage biofilm growth on polymeric surfaces. Journal Microbiological Methods, 68, 458–467.
Lee, J.-H., Seo, Y., Lim, T.-S., Bishop, P. L., & Papautsky, I. (2007). MEMS needle-type sensor array for in situ measurements of dissolved oxygen and redox potential. Environmental Science and Technology, 41, 7857–7863.
Leitz, M., Tamachkiarow, A., Franke, H., & Grattan, K. T. V. (2002). Monitoring of biofilm growth using ATR-leaky mode spectroscopy. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 35, 55–60.
Lewandowski, Z., & Boltz, J. P. (2011). Biofilms in water and wastewater treatment. Treatise on Water Science, 4, 529–570.
Lubbers, J., & Graaf, R. (1998). A simple and accurate formula for the sound velocity in water. Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology, 7(4), 1065–1068.
Ludensky, M. L. (1998). An automated system for biofilm monitoring. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 20(2), 109–115.
Markx, G. H., & Kell, D. B. (1990). Dielectric spectroscopy as a tool for the measurement of the formation of biofilms and their removal by electrolytic cleaning pulses and biocides. Biofouling, 2, 211–227.
Matos, M., Pereira, M. A., Nicolau, A., Rodrigues, A. L., Brito, A. G., & Nogueira, R. (2012). Influence of carrier concentration on the control of Galactomyces geotrichum bulking and bacterial community of biofilm reactors. Desalination and Water Treatment, 41(1–3), 325–334.
Mattilasandholm, T., & Wirtanen, G. (1992). Biofilm formation in the industry—a review. Food Reviews International, 8(4), 573–603.
Maurício, R. (2009). Contribuição para o estudo de biofilmes de espessura controlada—Idade do biofilme. Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa. PhD Thesis.
Maurício, R., Dias, C. J., & Santana, F. (2006). Monitoring biofilm thickness using a non-destructive, on-line, electrical capacitance technique. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 119, 599–607.
Maurício, R., Jubilado, N., Dias, C. J, & Santana, F. (2012). Patent no. 106089 P.
Milferstedt, K., Pons, M.-N., & Morgenroth, E. (2006). Optical method for long-term and large-scale monitoring of spatial biofilm development. Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 94, 773–782.
Mollica, A. & Cristiani, P. (2003). On-line biofilm monitoring by “BIOX” electrochemical probe. Water Science and Technology, 47(5), 45–49.
Nivens, D. E., Chambers, J. Q., Anderson, T. R., & White, D. C. (1993). Long-term, on-line monitoring of microbial biofilms using a quartz crystal microbalance. Analytical Chemistry, 65, 65–69.
Nivens, D. E., Palmer, R. J., & White, D. C. (1995). Continuous nondestructive monitoring of microbial biofilms: a review of analytical techniques. Journal of Industrial Microbiology, 15, 263–276.
Nogueira, R., Elenter, D., Brito, A. G., Melo, L. F., Wagner, M., & Morgenroth, E. (2005). Evaluating heterotrophic growth in a nitrifying biofilm reactor using fluorescence in situ hybridization and mathematical modelling. Water Science and Technology, 52(7), 135–141.
Pavanello, G., Faimali, M., Pittore, M., Mollica, A., Mollica, A., & Mollica, A. (2011). Exploiting a new electrochemical sensor for biofilm monitoring and water treatment optimization. Water Research, 45(4), 1651–1658.
Prest, E. I., Staal, M., Kuhl, M., van Loosdrecht, M. C. M., & Vrouwenvelder, J. S. (2012). Quantitative measurement and visualization of biofilm O2 consumption rates in membrane filtration systems. Journal of Membrane Science, 392, 66–75.
Rodrigues, A. L., Brito, A. G., Janknecht, P., Silva, J., Machado, A. V., & Nogueira, R. (2008). Characterization of biofilm formation on a humic material. The Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 35(11), 1269–1276.
Santana, F. J. (1986). Contribuição para o Estudo da Modelação de Reactores de Biomassa fixa (Discos Biológicos). Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia—UNL.
Saxena, I., Sturman, P. J., & Costerton, J. W. (2002). Development and testing of a fiber-optic probe for biofilm detection and quantification. Proceedings of the International Specialized Conference on Biofilm Monitoring, Porto, March 17–20.
Schmid T. (2006). Photoacoustic spectroscopy for process analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem, 384(5), 1071–1086.
Schmid, T., Panne, U., Haisch, C., & Niessner, R. (2003). Photoacoustic absorption spectra of biofilms. The Review of Scientific Instruments, 74, 755–757.
Schmid, T., Panne, U., Adams, J., & Niessner, R. (2004). Investigation of biocide efficacy by photoacoustic biofilm monitoring. Water Research, 38, 1189–1196.
Seymour, J. D., Codd, S. L., Gjersing, E. L., & Stewart, P. S. (2004). Magnetic resonance microscopy of biofilm structure and impact on transport in a capillary bioreactor. Journal of Magnetic Resonance, 167, 322–327.
Shemesh, H., Goertz, D. E., van der Sluis, L. W. M., de Jong, N., Wu, M. K., WesselinkShemesh, P. R., et al. (2007). High frequency ultrasound imaging of a single-species biofilm. Journal of Dentistry, 35, 673–678.
Tam, K., Kinsinger, N., Ayala, P., Qi, F., Shi, W., & Myung, N. V. (2007). Real-time monitoring of Streptococcus mutans biofilm formation using a quartz crystal microbalance. Caries Research, 41, 474–483.
Tamachkiarw, A., & Flemming, H. (2003). On line monitoring formation in a brewery water pipeline system with a fibre optical device. Water Science and Technology, 47, 19–24.
Tinham, P., & Bott, T. R. (2003). Biofouling assessment using an infrared monitor. Water Science and Technology, 47(5), 39–43.
Vanhooren, H., Van Hulle, S., De Pauw, D., & Vanrolleghem P. A. (2002) Monitoring and modelling a pilot-scale trickling filter using on-line off-gas analysis. Proceedings of the International Specialized Conference on Biofilm Monitoring, Porto, March 17–20.
Vrouwenvelder, J. S., Manolarakis, S. A., van der Hoek, J. P., van Paassen, J. A. M., van der Meer, W. G. J., van Agtmaal, J. M. C., et al. (2008). Quantitative biofouling diagnosis in full scale nanofiltration and reverse osmosis installations. Water Research, 42(19), 4856–4868.
Wolf, G., Crespo, J. G., & Reis, M. A. M. (2002). Optical and spectroscopic methods for biofilm examination and monitoring. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 1, 227–251.
Xavier, J. B., White, D. C., & Almeida, J. S. (2003). Automated biofilm morphology quantification from confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging. Water Science and Technology, 47, 31–37.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Maurício, R., Dias, C.J., Jubilado, N. et al. Biofilm thickness measurement using an ultrasound method in a liquid phase. Environ Monit Assess 185, 8125–8133 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3160-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-013-3160-0