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Above the Law? A Comparative Study of National Prosecutions of Heads of State

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Abstract

Official polices on the appropriate government response to crimes committed by a head of state are seldom dictated by strict principles of justice. Deciding whether to bring an errant leader to justice is often influenced by political expediency. Given the number of documented cases of official abuse, there is a need to understand why some governments choose to prosecute a former or sitting head of state while others do not. Yet, few studies have been done on this subject. This study reviews 52 cases of heads of state accused of crimes and explores how their own national governments responded to such accusations. Using data culled from various documentary sources, it employs a grounded theory approach to focus on the process that drives the decision to prosecute. Analysis indicates that political legitimacy, perception of threat, political stability, and degree of politicization of the military influence the decision to prosecute. The article concludes with a discussion of the significance and implications of these findings and suggestions for future research.

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Notes

  1. Ludwig (2002) listed a total of 1,941 heads of state from 1900 to 2000. This list allowed for only one ruler in a nation-state at a given time. Heads of state might or might not share power with other governmental branches (e.g., the legislature) but they could not share power equally with other individuals (e.g., in a junta). De facto rulers (i.e., those with the most political authority or clout), with or without formal titles or positions, took precedence over any constitutionally appointed or elected officials who had only nominal authority or ceremonial positions. Out of these 1,941 individuals, Ludwig selected only those with personal entries in Encyclopedia Britannica and Encyclopedia Americana (N = 377) as this would allow more in-depth analysis.

  2. In some countries (e.g., Italy), heads of state may be criminally prosecuted even while in office. In others (e.g., United States), presidents enjoy immunity from criminal prosecution while holding office and may only be prosecuted at the end of his term, or when he resigns or is impeached from the presidency.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Criminal Justice, Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, 77341, USA

    Napoleon C. Reyes & Jurg Gerber

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  1. Napoleon C. Reyes
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  2. Jurg Gerber
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Correspondence to Jurg Gerber.

Appendix

Appendix

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Table 1 How governments responded to allegations of wrongdoings against heads of state
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Reyes, N.C., Gerber, J. Above the Law? A Comparative Study of National Prosecutions of Heads of State. Crit Crim 19, 43–73 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-010-9105-9

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