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Diet and seasonal changes in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees at Kahuzi–Biega National Park

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Abstract

Based on 8 years of observations of a group of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri) and a unit-group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) living sympatrically in the montane forest at Kahuzi–Biega National Park, we compared their diet and analyzed dietary overlap between them in relation to fruit phenology. Data on fruit consumption were collected mainly from fecal samples, and phenology of preferred ape fruits was estimated by monitoring. Totals of 231 plant foods (116 species) and 137 plant foods (104 species) were recorded for gorillas and chimpanzees, respectively. Among these, 38% of gorilla foods and 64% of chimpanzee foods were eaten by both apes. Fruits accounted for the largest overlap between them (77% for gorillas and 59% for chimpanzees). Gorillas consumed more species of vegetative foods (especially bark) exclusively whereas chimpanzees consumed more species of fruits and animal foods exclusively. Although the number of fruit species available in the montane forest of Kahuzi is much lower than that in lowland forest, the number of fruit species per chimpanzee fecal sample (average 2.7 species) was similar to that for chimpanzees in the lowland habitats. By contrast, the number of fruit species per gorilla fecal sample (average 0.8 species) was much lower than that for gorillas in the lowland habitats. Fruit consumption by both apes tended to increase during the dry season when ripe fruits were more abundant in their habitat. However, the number of fruit species consumed by chimpanzees did not change according to ripe fruit abundance. The species differences in fruit consumption may be attributed to the wide ranging of gorillas and repeated usage of a small range by chimpanzees and/or to avoidance of inter-specific contact by chimpanzees. The different staple foods (leaves and bark for gorillas and fig fruits for chimpanzees) characterize the dietary divergence between them in the montane forest of Kahuzi, where fruit is usually scarce. Gorillas rarely fed on insects, but chimpanzees occasionally fed on bees with honey, which possibly compensate for fruit scarcity. A comparison of dietary overlap between gorillas and chimpanzees across habitats suggests that sympatry may not influence dietary overlap in fruit consumed but may stimulate behavioral divergence to reduce feeding competition between them.

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Acknowledgements

This paper was originally prepared for the International Symposium “African Great Apes: Evolution, Diversity and Conservation” held on 3–5 March 2004 in Kyoto, Japan. We would like to express our hearty thanks to Prof. Toshisada Nishida for giving us the opportunity to present our work on the sympatric apes at the symposium. This study was financed by a Grant for the Biodiversity Research of the 21st Century COE (A14) and by the International Scientific Research Program (No. 162550080 to J. Yamagiwa) sponsored by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Japan. It was conducted in cooperation with CRSN (Centre de Recherches

en Sciences Naturelles) and ICCN (Institut Congolais pour Conservation de la Nature). We thank Dr. S. Bashwira, Dr. B. Baluku, Mr. M.O. Mankoto, Mr. B. Kasereka, Mr. L. Mushenzi, Ms. S. Mbake, Mr. B.I. Iyomi, and Mr. C. Schuler for their administrative help; Dr. M. Matsubara for digitizing the daily travel routes of the study group onto a vegetation map. We are also greatly indebted to Mr. M. Bitsibu, Mr. S. Kamungu, and all of the guides, guards, and field assistants in the Kahuzi–Biega National Park for their technical help and hospitality throughout the fieldwork.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Human Evolution Studies, Graduate School of Sciences, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan

    Juichi Yamagiwa

  2. Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles, Lwiro, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo

    Augustin Kanyunyi Basabose

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  1. Juichi Yamagiwa
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  2. Augustin Kanyunyi Basabose
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Correspondence to Juichi Yamagiwa.

Appendix

Appendix

List of plant species eaten by eastern lowland gorillas and eastern chimpanzees at Kahuzi, including life form and part eaten

Species

Family name

Plant form

Fruit

Seed

Leaf

Pith/stem

Bark

Flower

Root

Resin

Dead wood

Whole part

Acacia monticola

Mimosaceae

Shrub

 

C

        

Acalypha bipartita

Euphorbiaceae

Tree

  

C

       

Acanthus pubescens

Acanthaceae

Shrub

   

C, G

      

Adenia bequaertii

Passifloraceae

Vine

  

G

       

Adenopus abbysinica

Cucurbitaceae

Vine

C

         

Aframomum laurentii

Zingiberaceae

Herb

C, G

  

C, G

      

Aframomum sanguineum

Zingiberaceae

Herb

C, G

         

Aglanthus bruneus

Loranthaceae

Epiphyte

C

         

Aglanthus myrsinifolius

Loranthaceae

Epiphyte

C

         

Aidia micrantha

Rubiaceae

Tree

    

G

     

Albizia gummifera

Mimosaceae

Tree

 

C

  

C

  

C

  

Alchornea hirtella

Euphorbiaceae

Shrub

G

 

G

       

Allophyllus sp.1

Sapindaceae

Tree

C, G

         

Allophyllus sp.2

Sapindaceae

Tree

C

         

Allophyllus kivuensis

Sapindaceae

Tree

C

         

Anthocleista grandifolia

Loganiaceae

Tree

  

C, G

       

Arisaema mildbraedii

Araceae

Herb

  

G

   

C, G

   

Artabotrys palutris

Annonaceae

Vine

G

 

G

 

G

     

Arundinaria alpina

Graminae

Bamboo

  

G

C, G

      

Asplenium sp.

Aspleniaceae

Epiphyte

  

G

G

G

     

Asplenium theciferum

Aspleniaceae

Epiphyte

G

 

G

G

G

 

G

   

Baissea multiflora

Apocynaceae

Vine

  

G

       

Barieria ventricosa

Acanthaceae

Herb

  

G

 

G

G

    

Basella alba

Basellaceae

Vine

  

G

       

Begonia meyeri-johannis

Begoniaceae

Herb

  

C, G

G

      

Bridelia bridelifolia

Euphorbiaceae

Tree

C, G

         

Canarina eminii

Campanulaceae

Vine

  

G

       

Carapa grandiflora

Meliaceae

Tree

C

         

Cassipourea ruwenzoriensis

Rhizophoraceae

Tree

C, G

         

Chasalla subochreata

Rubiaceae

Shrub

C, G

 

C, G

       

Clerodendron welwitschii

Verbenaceae

Shrub

  

G

 

G

     

Clerodendrum johnstonii

Verbenaceae

Shrub

  

C, G

       

Commelina cecilae

Commelinaceae

Herb

  

C, G

       

Commelina difusa

Commelinaceae

Herb

  

C

       

Conopharyngia durissima

Apocynaceae

Tree

G

         

Crassocephalum bumbense

Compositae

Shrub

  

G

G

      

Crotalaria sp.

Papilionaceae

Herb

C, G

         

Cyathea manniana

Cyatheaceae

Tree fern

  

C, G

C, G

G

     

Cyathula sp.

Amaranthaceae

Vine

G

  

C, G

 

C, G

    

Cyperus latifolius

Cyperaceae

Cyperus

  

C, G

G

      

Diospyros honleana

Ebenaceae

Tree

C, G

         

Dombeya goetzenii

Sterculiaceae

Tree

G

 

C, G

 

G

C, G

    

Dracaena laxissima

Agavaceae

Shrub

C

 

G

 

G

 

G

   

Ekebergia capensis

Meliaceae

Tree

C, G

         

Ekebergia ruppeliana

Meliaceae

Tree

C

         

Elaphoglossum sp.

Lomariopsidaceae

Tree fern

  

C, G

C, G

G

     

Elatostema welwitschii

Urticaceae

Herb

  

C, G

       

Embelia schimperi

Myrsinaceae

Tree

  

C, G

 

G

     

Englerina woodfordioides

Loranthaceae

Epiphyte

C, G

 

G

 

G

G

    

Ensete ventricosum

Musaceae

Banana

C

G

C

G

  

G

   

Erica arborea

Ericaceae

Tree

    

C

     

Erigeron floribundus

Compositae

Herb

  

G

       

Ficus artocarpoides

Moraceae

Tree

C

         

Ficus craterostoma

Moraceae

Tree

C

 

C

       

Ficus oreadryadum

Moraceae

Tree

C, G

 

C

 

G

     

Ficus thonningii

Moraceae

Tree

C, G

 

C, G

G

G

     

Ficus tremula

Moraceae

Tree

C

         

Flabellaria paniculata

Malpighiaceae

Vine

  

G

       

Galiniera coffeoides

Rubiaceae

Shrub

G

 

G

G

G

     

Gambeya gorungosana

Sapotaceae

Tree

G

   

G

     

Globimetula kivuensis

Loranthaceae

Epiphyte

  

G

 

G

     

Gouania longispicata

Rhamnaceae

Vine

  

G

 

G

     

Hagenia abyssinica

Rosaceae

Tree

   

G

C, G

     

Helichrysum sp.

Compositae

Herb

  

C, G

       

Hypericum revolutum

Guttiferae

Tree

G

 

G

       

Impatians burtonii

Balsaminaceae

Herb

C

 

C

C

      

Impatians irvingii

Balsaminaceae

Herb

C, G

 

C, G

C

      

Impatians niamniamensis

Balsaminaceae

Herb

C, G

 

C, G

C

      

Ipomea ivolucrata

Convolvulaceae

Vine

  

C, G

 

G

     

Jasminium abyssinicum

Oleaceae

Vine

  

G

 

G

     

Lactuca attenuata

Compositae

Herb

  

C, G

       

Lagenaria abyssinica

Cucurbitaceae

Vine

  

C

       

Landolphia owariensis

Apocynaceae

Vine

C, G

  

G

  

C

   

Leplaca cf.Mayumbensis

Meliaceae

Tree

G

   

G

     

Lobelia mildbraedii

Lobeliaceae

Shrub

  

G

       

Loeseneriella apocynoides

Hippocrateaceae

Vine

C

 

G

       

Lycopodium clavatum

Lycopodiaceae

Fern

  

C, G

C

      

Macaranga kilimandscharica

Euphorbiaceae

Tree

C, G

         

Maesa lanceolata

Myrsinaceae

Tree

C, G

         

Maesopsis eminii

Rhamnaceae

Tree

C

 

G

       

Marattia fraxinea

Marattiaceae

Fern

   

C, G

      

Melothria punctata

Cucurbitaceae

Vine

  

C, G

       

Mikania cordata

Compositae

Herb

  

G

 

G

     

Milletia dura

Fabaceae

Tree

 

C, G

 

G

      

Mimulopsis excellence

Acanthaceae

shrub

G

  

G

 

G

    

Momordica schimperiana

Cucurbitaceae

Vine

  

G

       

Monanthotaxis orophila

Annonaceae

Vine

C

 

G

       

Mussularia acuminata

Rubiaceae

Shrub

  

G

       

Myrianthus holstii

Moraceae

Tree

C, G

G

G

 

G

     

Myrianthus arboreus

Moraceae

Tree

C, G

G

G

 

G

     

Myrianthus preussi

Moraceae

Tree

C

         

Mystroxylon aethiopicum

Celastraceae

Tree

  

G

 

G

     

Neoboutonia microcalyx

Euphorbiaceae

Tree

C

  

C

G

 

G

   

Newtonia buchananii

Mimosaceae

Tree

 

C, G

        

Nuxia Congesta

Logoniaceae

Shrub

  

G

   

G

   

Ouratea brunneopupurea

Ochnaceae

Tree

  

G

       

Parinari curatellifolia

Chrysobalanaceae

Tree

  

C

       

Parinari exelsa

Chrysobalanaceae

Tree

  

C

       

Penisetum purpureum

Gramineae

Grass

  

G

C, G

      

Peponium vogelii

Cucurbitaceae

Vine

C

         

Periploca linearifolia

Asclepiadaceae

Vine

  

G

G

G

     

Physalis sp.

Solanaceae

Herb

C

         

Piper capense

Piperaceae

Shrub

C, G

 

C, G

C, G

G

     

Polygala ruwenzoriensis

Polygalaceae

Shrub

  

C, G

       

Polyscias fulva

Araliaceae

Tree

C

  

G

      

Psychotria palustris

Rubiaceae

Shrub

C, G

 

C, G

       

Pteridium aquilinum

Dennstaedtiaceae

Fern

  

C

C

      

Pycnostachys cricirosenii

Lamiaceae

Shrub

   

C, G

G

     

Pycnostachys goetzenii

Lamiaceae

Shrub

   

C, G

G

     

Rapanea melanophloeos

Myrsinaceae

Tree

    

G

     

Rhoicissus erythrodes

Vitaceae

Vine

  

G

       

Rubia cordifolia

Rubiaceae

Herb

  

G

G

      

Rubus adenocomus

Rosaceae

Vine

C, G

 

G

       

Rubus pinatus

Rosaceae

Vine

C, G

 

G

       

Rubus adolphi-friederici

Rosaceae

Vine

C

         

Rumex abyssinicus

Polygonaceae

Herb

  

C, G

C, G

      

Rumex bequaertii

Polygonaceae

Herb

  

C, G

C, G

G

     

Rytigynia sp.

Rubiaceae

Shrub

C

  

C

      

Salacia devrilis

Hippocrateaceae

Vine

C

 

G

       

Salacia erecta

Hippocrateaceae

Vine

  

G

 

G

     

Schefflera goetzenii

Araliaceae

Vine

  

C, G

G

G

     

Smilax anceps

Smilaceae

Vine

C, G

 

C, G

G

G

     

Strombosiopsis tetranda

Olacaceae

Tree

C, G

 

G

       

Symphonia globulifera

Guttiferae

Tree

C, G

 

G

G

G

     

Syzygium guineense

Myrtaceae

Tree

C, G

 

G

 

G

     

Taccazea apiculata

Asclepiadaceae

Vine

  

C, G

 

G

     

Tapinanthus constrictiflorus

Loranthaceae

Epiphyte

C, G

 

C, G

 

G

G

    

Thalictrum rhynchocarpum

Ranunculaceae

Herb

   

G

      

Tricalysia sp.

Rubiaceae

Shrub

C, G

 

G

       

Tristemma incompletum

Melastomaceae

Shrub

C, G

         

Triumfetta annua

Tliaceae

Vine

  

C, G

C

G

     

Triumfetta cordifolia

Tliaceae

Vine

  

C, G

C

G

     

Triumfetta tomentosa

Tiliaceae

Vine

  

C

C

      

Urera cameroonensis

Urticaceae

Vine

C, G

 

C

 

G

     

Urera hypselodendron

Urticaceae

Vine

  

G

 

G

     

Usnea sp.

Usneaceae

Lichen

  

C, G

       

Vaccinium stanleyi

Ericaceae

Shrub

  

G

 

G

     

Vernonia auriculifera

Compositae

Shrub

   

C, G

G

     

Vernonia hochstetteri

Compositae

Shrub

   

C, G

G

     

Vernonia kirubgae

Compositae

Shrub

  

G

C, G

G

     

Viscum congolense

Loranthaceae

Epiphyte

C, G

 

C, G

C, G

G

G

    

Xymalos monospora

Monimiaceae

Shrub

C, G

   

G

     

Unidentified sp. 1

 

Tree

        

G

 

Unidentified sp. 2

 

Tree

        

G

 

Unidentified sp. 3

 

Fungi

         

G

  1. C, chimpanzee; G, gorilla

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Yamagiwa, J., Basabose, A.K. Diet and seasonal changes in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees at Kahuzi–Biega National Park. Primates 47, 74–90 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-005-0147-7

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-005-0147-7

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