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The antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina: an overview

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Abstract

Spirulina is a species of filamentous cyanobacteria that has long been used as a food supplement. In particular, Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima are the most important. Thanks to a high protein and vitamin content, Spirulina is used as a nutraceutical food supplement, although its other potential health benefits have attracted much attention. Oxidative stress and dysfunctional immunity cause many diseases in humans, including atherosclerosis, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. Thus, the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of these microalgae may play an important role in human health. Here, we discuss the antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina in both animals and humans, along with the underlying mechanisms. In addition, its commercial and regulatory status in different countries is discussed as well. Spirulina activates cellular antioxidant enzymes, inhibits lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, scavenges free radicals, and increases the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase. Notably, there appears to be a threshold level above which Spirulina will taper off the antioxidant activity. Clinical trials show that Spirulina prevents skeletal muscle damage under conditions of exercise-induced oxidative stress and can stimulate the production of antibodies and up- or downregulate the expression of cytokine-encoding genes to induce immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory responses. The molecular mechanism(s) by which Spirulina induces these activities is unclear, but phycocyanin and β-carotene are important molecules. Moreover, Spirulina effectively regulates the ERK1/2, JNK, p38, and IκB pathways. This review provides new insight into the potential therapeutic applications of Spirulina and may provide new ideas for future studies.

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Abbreviations

FDA:

Food and drug administration

GRAS:

Generally recognized as safe

COPD:

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

IL:

Interleukin

TNF:

Tumor necrosis factor

MAPK:

Mitogen-activated protein kinase

ROS:

Reactive oxygen species

MDA:

Malondialdehyde

SOD:

Superoxide dismutase

CAT:

Catalase

GPx:

Glutathione peroxidase

GR:

Glutathione reductase

PX:

Peroxidase

APx:

Ascorbate peroxidase

GSH:

Glutathione

GST:

Glutathione S-transferase

DPPH:

2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl

HSC:

Hepatic stellate cell

HCD:

High-cholesterol diet

PHGPx:

Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase

6-OHDA:

6-Hydroxydopamine

DLM:

Deltamethrin

NASH:

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

ALT:

Alanine aminotransferase

OSF:

Oral submucous fibrosis

COPD:

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

AST:

Aspartate transaminase

NO:

Nitric oxide

Se:

Selenium

Te:

Tellurium

IFN:

Interferon

PHA:

Phytohemagglutinin

LPS:

Lipopolysaccharide

iNOS:

Inducible nitric oxide synthase

COX-2:

Cyclooxygenase-2

eNOS:

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase

MPO:

Myeloperoxidase

NASH:

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis

PD:

Parkinson’s disease

AAV9:

Adeno-associated virus vector

NMDA:

N-methyl d-aspartate receptor

OSF:

Oral submucous fibrosis

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Acknowledgments

This work was financially supported by Yangtze Youth Talents Fund (Yangtze University, Grant No. 2015cqr19), National Natural Science Foundation of China (81501269), the project of Excellence FIM UHK, as well as the long-term development plan UHHK.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Life Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434025, Hubei, China

    Qinghua Wu

  2. Institute of Biomedicine, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434025, Hubei, China

    Qinghua Wu

  3. Center for Basic and Applied Research, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic

    Qinghua Wu, Blanka Klímová & Kamil Kuča

  4. Medical School, Yangtze University, Jingzhou, 434025, Hubei, China

    Lian Liu

  5. Biomedical Research Center, University Hospital Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic

    Kamil Kuča

  6. Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Grigore T. Popa, Iasi, Romania

    Anca Miron

  7. Hunan Engineering and Research Center of Animal and Poultry Science, Key Laboratory of Agro-ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha, China

    Dan Wan

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  1. Qinghua Wu
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Wu, Q., Liu, L., Miron, A. et al. The antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory activities of Spirulina: an overview. Arch Toxicol 90, 1817–1840 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00204-016-1744-5

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