Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Protective Factors in American Indian Communities and Adolescent Violence

  • Published:
Maternal and Child Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

With their distinct cultural heritage and rural boundaries, American Indian reservation communities offer a unique opportunity to explore protective factors that help buffer adolescents from potential risk behaviors such as violence. Prior published research on Indian communities has not explored three potential protective factors for violence—parental monitoring of adolescents and friends, adolescents’ self-efficacy to avoid fighting, and adolescents’ interest in learning more about their traditional culture. This paper explores the relationship between these factors and reduced risk of reported violence. In 1998, 630 American Indian students in grades 6–12 were surveyed in five Midwestern, rural Indian reservation schools. Path analysis was used to identify the direct and indirect association of the three potential protective factors with reduced violence behavior. There were significant gender differences both in perceived parental monitoring and in adolescents’ self-efficacy. For female adolescents, parental monitoring had the strongest inverse relationship with female adolescents’ involvement in violence. Female adolescents’ self-efficacy and their interest in learning more about their culture were also inversely associated with violence and therefore potentially important protectors. Male adolescents who reported more interest in learning the tribe’s culture had better self-efficacy to avoid violence. However, self-efficacy did not successfully predict their reported involvement in peer violence. These findings support exploring gender differences, parental monitoring, self-efficacy training as well as cultural elements in future violence intervention studies. Further investigation is needed to identify protective factors for risk behaviors among male adolescents and test the generalizability to non-reservation based adolescents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Youth Online: High School YRBS. (2011). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. http://apps.nccd.cdc.gov/youthonline/App/QuestionsOrLocations.aspx?CategoryId=1. Accessed July 12, 2012.

  2. Bearinger, L. H., Pettingell, S. L., & Resnick, M. D. (2005). Violence perpetration among urban American Indian youth. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159, 270–277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Duran, E., & Duran, B. (1995). Native American postcolonial psychology. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Stannard, D. E. (1992). American holocaust: The conquest of the new world. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Wrone, D. R., & Nelson, R. S. (1982). Whose the savage?. Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Thornton, R. (1987). American Indian holocaust and survival: A population history since 1492. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Brave Heart, M. Y. B., & DeBruyn, L. M. (1998). The American Indian holocaust: Healing historical unresolved grief. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 8, 56–78.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Brave Heart, M. Y. H., Chase, J., Elkins, J., & Altschul, D. B. (2011). Historical trauma among indigenous peoples of the Americas: Concepts, research, and clinical considerations. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 43(4), 282–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Nesper, L. (2002). The walleye war: The struggle for Ojibwe spearfishing and treaty rights. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Maze of injustice: The failure to protect indigenous women from sexual violence in the USA. (2007). Amnesty International. http://www.amnestyusa.org/pdfs/MazeOfInjustice.pdf. Accessed July 12, 2012.

  11. Whitbeck, L. B., Chen, X. J., & Hoyt, D. R. (2004). Discrimination, historical loss and enculturation: Culturally specific risk and resiliency factors for alcohol abuse among American Indians. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65(4), 409–418.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Chewning, B., Douglas, J., Kokotailo, P., Lacourt, J., St. Clair, D., & Wilson, D. (2001). Protective factors associated with Indian adolescents’ safer sexual patterns. Journal of Maternal and Child Health, 5(4), 273–280.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Estrada-Martinez, L. M., Padilla, M. B., Caldwell, C. H., & Schulz, A. J. (2011). Examining the influence of family environments on youth violence: A comparison of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Non-Latino Black, and Non-Latino white adolescents. Journal of Youth Adolescents, 40(8), 1039–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Foshee, V. A., Reyes, H. L. M., Ennett, S. T., & Suchindran, C. (2011). Risk and protective factors distinguishing profiles of adolescent peer and dating violence perpetration. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 344–350.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Henrich, C. C., Brookmeyer, K. A., & Shahar, G. (2005). Weapon violence in adolescence: Parent and school connectedness as protective factors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37, 306–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Hardaway, C. R., McLoyd, V. C., & Wood, D. (2012). Exposure to violence and socioemotional adjustment in low-income youth: An examination of protective factors. American Journal of Community Psychology, 49(1–2), 112–126.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Stoddard, S. A., McMorris, B. J., & Sieving, R. E. (2011). Do social connections and hope matter in predicting early adolescent violence? American Journal of Community Psychology, 48(3–4), 247–256.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Cummins, J. R., Ireland, M., Resnick, M. D., & Blum, R. W. (1999). Correlates of physical and emotional health among Native American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 24(1), 38–44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Grossman, D. C., Milligan, B. C., & Deyo, R. A. (1991). Risk factors for suicide attempts among Navajo adolescents. American Journal of Public Health, 81(7), 870–874.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Pettingell, S. L., Bearinger, L. H., Skay, C. L., Resnick, M. D., Potthoff, S. J., & Eichhorn, J. (2008). Protecting urban American Indian young people from suicide. American Journal of Health Behavior, 32(5), 465–476.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bearinger, L. H., Pettingell, S. L., Resnick, M. D., & Potthoff, S. J. (2010). Reducing weapon-carrying among urban American Indian young people. Journal of Adolescent Health, 47(1), 43–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Swaim, R. C., Oetting, E. R., Thurman, P. J., Beauvais, F., & Edwards, R. W. (1993). American Indian adolescent drug use and socialization characteristics: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 24, 53–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Swaim, R. C., Beauvais, F. B., Wwalker, R. D., & Silk-Wwalker, P. (2011). The effects of parental diagnosis and changing family norms on alcohol use and related problems among urban American Indian adolescents. The American Journal on Addictions, 20, 212–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Baldwin, J. A., Brown, B. G., & Wayment, H. A. (2011). Culture and context: Buffering the relationship between stressful life events and risky behaviors in American Indian youth. Substance Use and Misuse, 11, 1380–1394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Baranowski, T., Cheryl, L. P., & Guy, S. P. (1997). Social cognitive theory. In K. Glanz, F. M. Lewis, & B. K. Rimer (Eds.), Health behavior and health education (2nd ed., pp. 153–178). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Baban, A., & Craciun, C. (2007). Changing health-risk behaviors: A review of theory and evidence-based interventions in health psychology. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 1, 45–67.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Galliher, R. V., Evans, C. M., Weiser, D. (2007). Social and individual predictors of substance use for Native American youth. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 16(3), 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Scott, W. D., & Dearing, E. (2012). A longitudinal study of self-efficacy and depressive symptoms in youth of a North American Plains tribe. Development and Psychopathology, 24(02), 607–622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lacourt, J., St. Clair, D., Kokotailo, P. K., Wilson, D., & Chewning, B. (2005). Know your roots: Development and evaluation of an oral history curriculum for Native American middle-school students. American Indian Culture & Research Journal, 29(4), 59–74.

    Google Scholar 

  30. LaFromboise, T. D., Hoyt, D. R., Oliver, L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2006). Family, community, and school influences on resilience among American Indian adolescents in the upper Midwest. Journal of Community Psychology, 34(2), 193–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Leland, L. (2009). The relationship between Navajo adolescents’ knowledge and attitude of Navajo culture and their self-esteem and resiliency. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences, 69-A(12), 4631.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Jessor, R. (1992). Risk behavior in adolescence: A psychosocial framework for understanding and action. Developmental Review, 12, 374–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Small, S. A., & Kerns, D. (1993). Unwanted sexual activity during early and middle adolescence: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 941–952.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Rolf, J., Baldwin, J., Trotter, R., Alexander, D., Denetsosie, R., Tongue, N., et al. (1991). AIDS prevention of youth of rural Native American tribes. International Conference of AIDS, 7, 395.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Youth Risk Behavior Survey of high school students attending Bureau funded schools. (2001). Bureau of Indian Affairs. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED459056&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED459056. Accessed February 12, 2011.

  36. Great Tribe of Navajo Nation: YRBSS report. (2003). www.yrbs.navajo.org. Accessed February 12, 2011.

  37. Rutman, S., Park, A., Castor, M., Taualii, M., & Forquera, R. (2008). Urban American Indian and Alaska Native youth: Youth risk behavior survey 1997–2003. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 12, S76–S81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Smokowski, P. R., David-Ferdon, C., & Stroupe, N. (2009). Acculturation and violation in minority adolescents: A review of the empirical literature. Journal of Primary Prevention, 30, 215–263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Goodkind, J., LaNoue, M., Lee, C., Freeland, L., & Freund, R. (2012). Feasibility, acceptability, and initial findings from a community‐based cultural mental health intervention for American Indian youth and their families. Journal of Community Psychology, 40(4), 381–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Pavkov, T. W., Travis, L., Fox, K. A., King, C. B., & Cross, T. L. (2010). Tribal youth victimization and delinquency: Analysis of Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance Survey data. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(2), 123–134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Go, C. G., & Le, T. N. (2005). Gender differences in Cambodian delinquency: The role of ethnic identity, parental discipline, and peer delinquency. Crime & Delinquency, 51, 220–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The project described was supported by the Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA) program, through the NIH National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), grant UL1TR000427. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH. The collaboration and contribution from students, schools, and reservations participating in this study are deeply appreciated.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin Madison, 777 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA

    Jia Pu, Betty Chewning & Dale Wilson

  2. Department of American Indian Studies, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Iyekiyapiwin Darlene St. Clair

  3. Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA

    Patricia K. Kokotailo

  4. American Indian Studies, Ethnic Studies and Women’s Department, St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN, USA

    Jeanne Lacourt

Authors
  1. Jia Pu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Betty Chewning
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Iyekiyapiwin Darlene St. Clair
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Patricia K. Kokotailo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jeanne Lacourt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Dale Wilson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jia Pu.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pu, J., Chewning, B., St. Clair, I.D. et al. Protective Factors in American Indian Communities and Adolescent Violence. Matern Child Health J 17, 1199–1207 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-1111-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-1111-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation