Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Sexual Assault as a Crime Against Young People

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Evidence based on almost 300,000 sexual assaults from the National Incident-Based Reporting System showed that the modal age of victims was 15 years, regardless of the age of the offender, the gender of the offender, or the gender of the victim. We suggest that adolescents have the highest risk of victimization because of their sexual attractiveness, vulnerability, and exposure to motivated offenders. As a result of these factors, sexual assault is as much an offense against young people as it is against women. The sexual attractiveness of young people also has implications for the age of offenders. Older men have much higher rates of offending than one would expect, given the age–desistance relationship. Thus, we found that older men have much higher rates of sexual assault than physical assault. Finally, evidence suggested that homosexual men were at least as likely as heterosexual men to commit sexual assault. The pattern suggests that the tendency for sexual assaults to involve male offenders and female victims reflects male sexuality rather than attitudes toward women.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Our emphasis on sexual attractiveness in interpreting age preferences implies that sexual motivation plays a role in sexual assault. The idea is controversial, although considering sexual motivation along with other motives has become more acceptable in recent years (e.g., Bryden & Grier, 2011; Felson, 2002; Kanin, 1985; Mann & Hollin, 2007; Palmer, 1988). We do not deny that a power motive or some combination of motives could also be involved. We focus on sexual attractiveness (and motivation) because it makes sense of the age patterns that we observe. The feminist approach predicts gender not age discrimination in sexual assaults. Where age patterns have been discussed they have been attributed to opportunity factors (Kimmel, 2003; Travis, 2003).

  2. From an evolutionary perspective the sexual attractiveness of young women and their high risk of rape reflects the association between age and fecundity in ancestral history (e.g., Ellis, 1989; Palmer, 1991; Shields & Shields, 1983; Symons, 1979; Thornhill & Palmer, 2000). We leave it to others to decide the relevance of our results to evolutionary psychology. From our perspective, it seems clear that evolution plays a role in sexuality and that sex differences in sexuality play a role in rape.

  3. In addition, male sex drive is related to testosterone levels and testosterone levels begin a slow decline in the early twenties (e.g., Booth, Johnson, & Granger, 1999; Sternbach, 1998). Testosterone, however, is also related to non-sexual offenses.

  4. This pattern is likely to be weaker when older men have power and status, if these characteristics affect their sexual attractiveness.

  5. Similar sex differences were observed across ages, years of data collection, educational levels, and nations. A study of a large sample of identical and fraternal twins in Australia suggests that individual differences in interest in casual sex are at least partly genetic (Bailey, Kirk, Zhu, Dunne, & Martin, 2000).

  6. We could more easily compare strength if we had data on non-victims and estimated an equation predicting victimization.

  7. The argument that husbands protect married women in their twenties from rape (e.g., Mesnick, 1997) cannot explain why the effects were similar for all gender combinations.

  8. Of course, some of the offenders who assault children are pedophiles. Their presence in the sample is not relevant to our conclusions. In addition, the patterns do not change much when we only included incidents involving victims 15 years and older.

References

  • Ageton, S. S. (1983). Sexual assault among adolescents. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amato, P. R., Booth, A., Johnson, D. R., & Rogers, S. J. (2007). Alone together: How marriage in America is changing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amir, M. (1971). Patterns in forcible rape. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, J. M., Kirk, K. M., Zhu, G., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Do individual differences in sociosexuality represent genetic or environmentally contingent strategies? Evidence from the Australian twin registry. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 537–545.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Gender differences in erotic plasticity: The female sex drive as socially flexible and responsive. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 347–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, D., Gates, G., Sanders, S., & Taylor, L. (2000). Demographics of the gay and lesbian population in the United States: Evidence from available systematic data sources. Demography, 37, 139–154.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bogaert, A. F., Turkovich, D. A., & Hafer, C. L. (1993). A content analysis of Playboy centerfolds from 1953 through 1990: Changes in explicitness, objectification, and model’s age. Journal of Sex Research, 30, 135–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, A., Johnson, D. R., & Granger, D. A. (1999). Testosterone and men’s health. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 22, 1–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. New York: Simon and Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryden, D. P., & Grier, M. M. (2011). Criminology: The search for rapists’ “real” motives. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 101, 171–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2011, June). American Time Use Survey–2010 results. Bureau of Labor Statistics News Release.

  • Burrows, K. (2013). Age preferences in dating advertisements by homosexuals and heterosexuals: From sociobiological to sociological explanations. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 203–211.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (2000). The dangerous passion: Why jealousy is as necessary as love and sex. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. D., & Hatfield, E. (1989). Gender differences in receptivity to sexual offers. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 2, 39–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, F. J. (1974). Longitudinal and cross-sectional assessments of age changes in physical strength as related to sex, social class, and mental ability. Journal of Gerontology, 29, 423–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edlund, L., & Korn, E. (2002). A theory of prostitution. Journal of Political Economy, 110, 181–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, L. (1989). Theories of rape: Inquiries into the causes of sexual aggression. New York: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, B. J., & Symons, D. (1990). Sex differences in sexual fantasy: An evolutionary psychology approach. Journal of Sex Research, 27, 527–555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, H. J. (1976). Sex and personality. Austin: University of Texas Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felson, M. (1998). Crime and everyday life (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felson, R. B. (2002). Violence and gender reexamined. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Felson, R. B. (2010). Academic apartheid: Segregation in the study of partner violence. Partner Abuse, 1, 61–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felson, R. B., & Cundiff, P. (2012). Age and sexual assault during robberies. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 10–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felson, R. B., Cundiff, P., & Painter-Davis, N. (2012). Age and sexual assault in correctional facilities: A blocked opportunity approach. Criminology, 50, 887–911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felson, R. B., & Krohn, M. (1990). Motives for rape. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 27, 222–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Felson, R. B., & Paré, P. P. (2005). The reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault by nonstrangers to the police. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 597–610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, M. B. (1994). Growing old gracefully: Age concealment and gender. Journal of Gerontology, 49, 149–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, T. C., & Rennison, C. (2003, March). Reporting crime to the police, 1992–2000. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report.

  • Hayes, A. F. (1995). Age preferences for same- and opposite-sex partners. Journal of Social Psychology, 135, 125–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henss, R. (2006). Perceiving age and attractiveness in facial photographs. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21, 933–946.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hickson, F. C. I., Davies, P. M., Hunt, A. J., Weatherburn, P., & McManus, T. J. (1994). Gay men as victims of nonconsensual sex. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 23, 281–294.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. (1983). Age and the explanation of crime. American Journal of Sociology, 89, 552–584.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Justice Research and Statistical Association. (2012). Data quality. Retrieved from http://www.jrsa.org/ibrrc/using-data/data_quality.shtml.

  • Kanin, E. J. (1985). Date rapists: Differential sexual socialization and relative deprivation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 219–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, G., & Phua, V. C. (2003). Ageism alive in date selection among men? Age requests among gay and straight men in internet personal ads. Journal of Men’s Studies, 11, 225–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenrick, D. T., Keefe, R. C., Bryan, A., Barr, A., & Brown, S. (1995). Age preferences and mate choice among homosexuals and heterosexuals: A case for modular psychological mechanisms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1166–1172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, M. (2003). An unnatural history of rape. In C. B. Travis (Ed.), Evolution, gender, and rape (pp. 221–234). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koss, M. P., Goodman, L. A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., Keita, G. P., & Russo, N. F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lalumiere, M. L., Harris, G. T., Quinsey, V. L., & Rice, M. E. (2005). The causes of rape: Understanding individual differences in male proclivity for sexual assault. Washington, DC: APA Books.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Lalumiere, M. L., & Quinsey, V. L. (1996). Sexual deviance, antisociality, mating effort, and the use of sexually coercive behaviors. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 33–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malamuth, N. M. (1986). Predictors of naturalistic sexual aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 953–962.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann, R. E., & Hollin, C. R. (2007). Sexual offenders’ explanations for their offending. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 13, 3–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mathes, E. W., Brennan, S. M., Haugen, P. M., & Rice, H. B. (1985). Ratings of physical attractiveness as a function of age. Journal of Social Psychology, 125, 157–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mathews, A. M., Bancroft, J. H. J., & Slater, P. (1972). The principal components of sexual preference. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 11, 35–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K. (1938). Social structure and anomie. American Sociological Review, 3, 672–682.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mesnick, S. L. (1997). Sexual alliances: Evidence and evolutionary implications. In P. A. Gowaty (Ed.), Feminism and evolutionary biology (pp. 207–260). New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mezey, G., & King, M. (1989). The effects of sexual assault on men: A survey of 22 victims. Psychological Medicine, 19, 205–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Montoye, H. J., & Lamphiear, D. E. (1977). Grip and arm strength in males and females, age 10 to 69. Research Quarterly, 48, 109–120.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver, M. B., & Hyde, J. S. (1993). Gender differences in sexuality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 29–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T. (1988). Twelve reasons why rape is not sexually motivated: A skeptical examination. Journal of Sex Research, 25, 512–530.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, C. T. (1991). Human rape: Adaptation or by-product? Journal of Sex Research, 28, 365–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 21–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pino, N. W., & Meier, R. F. (1999). Gender differences in rape reporting. Sex Roles, 40, 979–990.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schäfer, S. (1977). Sociosexual behavior in male and female homosexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 8, 385–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247–311.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, D. P., Jonason, P. K., Byerley, G. J., Flores, S. D., Illbeck, B. E., O’Leary, K. N., & Qudrat, A. (2012). A reexamination of sex differences in sexuality: New studies reveal old truths. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 135–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shackelford, T. K. (2002). Are young women the special targets of rape-murder? Aggressive Behavior, 28, 224–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shields, W. M., & Shields, L. M. (1983). Forcible rape: An evolutionary perspective. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 115–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, J. M., Sorenson, S. B., Golding, J. M., Burnam, M. A., & Stein, J. A. (1987). The prevalence of childhood sexual assault: The Los Angeles Epidemiologic Catchment Area Project. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126, 1141–1153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silverthorne, Z. A., & Quinsey, V. L. (2000). Sexual partner age preferences of homosexual and heterosexual men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 67–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, J. A., & Gangestad, S. W. (1991). Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 870–883.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spivack, A. L. (2011). Sexual violence: Beyond the feminist-evolutionary debate. El Paso, TX: LFB Scholarly Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sternbach, H. (1998). Age-associated testosterone decline in men: Clinical issues for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1310–1318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Palmer, C. T. (2000). A natural history of rape: Biological bases of human sexual coercion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Thornhill, N. W. (1983). Human rape: An evolutionary analysis. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4, 137–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, J. M., & Wasserman, T. (1997). The perception of sexual attractiveness: Sex differences in variability. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26, 243–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, J. M., & Wasserman, T. (1998). Sexual attractiveness: Sex differences in assessment and criteria. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 171–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Travis, C. B. (2003). Evolution, gender, and rape. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warr, M. (1993). Age, peers, and delinquency. Criminology, 31, 17–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, K. G. (2010). Male sexual victimization: Examining men’s experiences of rape and sexual assault. Men and Masculinities, 12, 275–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, G. C. (1975). Sex and evolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M., Daly, M., & Scheib, J. (1997). Femicide: An evolutionary psychological perspective. In P. A. Gowaty (Ed.), Feminism and evolutionary biology (pp. 431–465). New York: Chapman & Hall.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sociology and Crime, Law, and Justice, Pennsylvania State University, 211 Oswald Tower, University Park, PA, 16803, USA

    Richard B. Felson

  2. Department of Criminal Justice, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA

    Patrick R. Cundiff

Authors
  1. Richard B. Felson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Patrick R. Cundiff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Richard B. Felson.

Appendix

Appendix

See Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Female’s age and risk of sexual assault by males (N = 251,615)

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Felson, R.B., Cundiff, P.R. Sexual Assault as a Crime Against Young People. Arch Sex Behav 43, 273–284 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0127-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0127-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation