Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Anxiety, Sex-Linked Behaviors, and Digit Ratios (2D:4D)

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The second to fourth (2D:4D) digit ratio, a sexually dimorphic, phenotypic characteristic putatively associated with perinatal androgen action, has been used to evaluate the hypothesized relation between prenatal hormonal factors and a variety of sexually dimorphic behaviors, including sex-linked psychopathology. Smaller digit ratios, suggestive of stronger perinatal androgen action, have been associated with male-linked disorders (e.g., autism), and larger digit ratios, suggestive of weaker perinatal androgen action, have been associated with female-linked disorders (e.g., depression and eating disorders). To evaluate the possible relation between digit ratio and another traditionally female-linked disorder, anxiety, 2D:4D ratios were measured in a non-clinical sample (58 men, 52 women). Participants also completed a battery of anxiety and gender role measures and performed two spatial/cognitive tasks typically showing a male advantage (mental rotation and targeting) and two tasks typically showing a female advantage (location memory and spatial working memory). Men with a more feminine pattern of sex-linked traits and behaviors (including digit ratios) reported greater anxiety. In contrast, greater anxiety in women was associated with both female-typical and male-typical traits and behaviors, but and no significant association between digit ratio and anxiety was found. This pattern of results suggests that the development of anxiety is multiply determined, with contributing factors varying by sex.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, G. M. (2006). Associations among gender-linked toy preferences, spatial ability, and digit ratio: Evidence from eye-tracking analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 699–709.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Altshuler, L. L., Hendrick, V., & Cohen, L. S. (1998). Course of mood and anxiety disorders during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59, 29–33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arato, M., Frecska, E., Beck, C., An, M., & Kiss, H. (2004). Digit length pattern in schizophrenia suggests disturbed prenatal hemispheric lateralization. Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 28, 191–194.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arrindell, W. A., Kolk, A. M., Pickersgill, M. J., & Hageman, W. J. J. M. (1993). Biological sex, sex role orientation, masculine sex role stress, dissimulation, and self-reported fears. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 103–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J., Manning, J. T., McInroy, K., & Matthews, E. (2002). A preliminary investigation of the associations between personality, cognitive ability and digit ratio. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1115–1124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A. A., & Hurd, P. L. (2005a). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology, 68, 215–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A. A., & Hurd, P. L. (2005b). Depression in men is associated with more feminine finger length ratios. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 829–836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A. A., Wahlsten, D., & Hurd, P. L. (2005). Digit ratio (2D:4D) and behavioral differences between inbred mouse strains. Genes, Brain, and Behavior, 4, 318–323.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Battisti, F., De Francisis, A., Tarsitani, L., Di Clemente, L., Di Stani, F., Calabresi, M., et al. (2004). Gender differences in anger, depression and anxiety dimensions and psychometric screening of psychopathology in a sample of students. Rivista di Psichiatria, 39, 184–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Beck Anxiety Inventory manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1981). Bem Sex Role Inventory professional manual. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berenbaum, S. A., & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W., Hines, M., Fane, B. A., & Breedlove, S. M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 380–386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, J. J., Williams, R. M., Hughes, I. A., & Acerini, C. L. (2003). In-utero androgen exposure and 2nd to 4th digit length ratio-comparisons between healthy controls and females with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Human Reproduction, 18, 976–979.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain, N. L., Driver, E. D., & Meisfeld, R. L. (1994). The length and location of the CAG trinucleotide repeats in the androgen receptor N-terminal domain affect transactivation function. Nucleic Acids Research, 15, 3181–3186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chambless, D. L., & Mason, J. (1986). Sex, sex-role stereotyping and agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24, 231–235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Bendahan, C. C. C., van de Beek, C., & Berenbaum, S. A. (2005). Prenatal sex hormone effects on childhood and adult sex-typed behavior: Methods and findings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 353–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collaer, M. L., & Hines, M. (1995). Human behavioral sex differences: A role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 55–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, B. L., Noyes, R. J., Garvey, M. J., Beach, V., Sobotka, J., & Chaudhry, D. (1990). Anxiety and the menstrual cycle in panic disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 19, 221–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coolican, J., & Peters, M. (2003). Sexual dimorphism in the 2D/4D ratio and its relation to mental rotation performance. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 179–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csathó, Á., Osváth, A., Bicsák, É., Karádi, K., Manning, J., & Kállai, J. (2003a). Sex role identity related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in women. Biological Psychology, 62, 147–156.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Csathó, Á., Osváth, A., Karádi, K., Bicsák, É., Manning, J., & Kállai, J. (2003b). Spatial navigation related to the second to fourth digit length in women. Learning and Individual Differences, 13, 239–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duff, S. J., & Hampson, E. (2001). A sex difference on a novel spatial working memory task in humans. Brain and Cognition, 47, 470–493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrler, D. J., Evans, J. G., & Mcghee, R. L. (1999). Extending big-five theory into childhood: A preliminary investigation into the relationship between big-five personality traits and behavior problems in children. Psychology in the Schools, 36, 451–458.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., Manning, J. T., & Neave, N. (2004). Second to fourth digit ratio and the ‘big five’ personality factors. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 495–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fodor, I. G. (1974). The phobic syndrome in women: Implications for treatment. In V. Franks & V. Burtle (Eds.), Women in therapy (pp. 132–168). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foot, M., & Koszycki, D. (2004). Gender differences in anxiety-related traits in patients with panic disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 20, 123–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ginsburg, G. S., & Silverman, W. K. (2000). Gender role orientation and fearfulness in children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 14, 57–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Golombok, S., & Rust, J. (1993). The pre-school activities inventory: A standardized assessment of gender role in children. Psychological Assessment, 5, 131–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granger, D. A., Shirtcliff, E. A., Booth, A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Schwatrz, E. B. (2004). The “trouble” with salivary testosterone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 1229–1240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hampson, E., Rovet, J. F., & Altmann, D. (1998). Spatial reasoning in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 299–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertzberg, T., & Wahlbeck, K. (1999). The impact of pregnancy and the puerperium on panic disorder: A review. Journal of Psychosomatics Obstetrics and Gynecology, 20, 59–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hettema, J. M., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2001). A review and meta-analysis of the genetic epidemiology of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1568–1578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hines, M., Fane, B. A., Pasterski, V. L., Mathews, G. A., Conway, G. S., & Brook, C. (2003). Spatial abilities following prenatal androgen abnormality: Targeting and mental rotations performance in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 1010–1026.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1988). Gender differences in verbal ability: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 53–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kazemi-Esfarjani, P., Trifiro, M. A., & Pinski, L. (1995). Evidence for a recessive function of the long polyglutamine tract in the human androgen receptor: Possible pathogenic relevance for the (CAG)n-expanded neuropathies. Human Molecular Genetics, 4, 523–527.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kempel, P., Gohlke, B., Klempau, J., Zinsberger, P., Reuter, M., & Hennig, J. (2005). Second-to-fourth digit length, testosterone and spatial ability. Intelligence, 33, 215–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan, A. A., Jacobson, K. C., Gardner, C. O., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2005). Personality and comorbidity of common psychiatric disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 190–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klump, K. L., Gobrogge, K. L., Perkins, P. S., Thorne, D., Sisk, C. L., & Breedlove, S. M. (2006). Preliminary evidence that gonadal hormones organize and activate disordered eating. Psychological Medicine, 36, 539–546.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leveroni, C. L., & Berenbaum S. A. (1998). Early androgen effects on interest in infants: Evidence from children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 321–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liben, L. S., & Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(2, 269), 7–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucion, A. B., Charchat, H., Pereira, G. A. M., & Rasia-Filho, A. A. (1996). Influence of early postnatal gonadal hormones on anxiety in adult male rats. Physiology and Behavior, 60, 1419–1423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutchmaya, S., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, P., Knickmeyer, R., & Manning, J. T. (2004). 2nd to 4th digit ratios, fetal testosterone, and estradiol. Early Human Development, 77, 23–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The two sexes: Growing up apart, coming together. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malas, M. A., Dogan, S., Evcil, E. H., & Desdicioglu, K. (2006). Fetal development of the hand, digits, and digit ratio. Early Human Development, 82, 469–475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T. (2002). Digit ratio: A pointer to fertility, behavior, and health. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Barley, L., Walton, J., Lewis-Jones, D. I., Trivers, R. L., Singh, D., et al. (2000). The 2nd:4th digit ratio, sexual dimorphism, population differences, and reproductive success: Evidence for sexually antagonistic genes? Evolution and Human Behavior, 21, 163–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., & Sanders, G. (2001). The 2nd to 4th digit ratio and autism. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 43, 160–164.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Bundred, P. E., Newton, D. J., & Flanagan, B. F. (2003). The second to fourth digit ratio and variation in the androgen receptor gene. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 399–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Scutt, D., Wilson, J., & Lewis-Jones, D. I. (1998). The ratio of the 2nd and 4th digit length: A predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and oestrogen. Human Reproduction, 13, 3000–3004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Stewart, A., Bundred, P. E., & Trivers, R. L. (2004). Sex and ethnic differences in 2nd to 4th digit ratio of children. Early Human Development, 80, 161–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, S. M., Manning, J. T., & Dowrick, C. F. (1999). Fluctuating asymmetry, relative digit length, and depression in men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 203–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D., & Bracht, M. S. (2005). Sex differences in the relative lengths of metacarpals and metatarsals in gorillas and chimpanzees. Hormones and Behavior, 47, 99–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D., & Shubel, E. (2002). Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 492–500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D., Westhafer, J. G., Pasanen, E. G., Carlson, C. L., & Tucker, D. M. (2005). Physiological evidence of hypermasculinization in boys with the inattentive type of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical Neuroscience Research, 5, 233–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, M. H. (2006). The use of digit ratios as markers for perinatal androgen action. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 4, 10–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, D. R., Hoehn-Saric, R., Foster, G. V., & Hipsley, P. A. (1993). The influence of premenstrual syndrome on ratings of anxiety in women with generalized anxiety disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 248–251.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer-Bahlburg, H. F. L., Dolezal, C., Baker, S. W., Carlson, A. D., Obeid, J. S., & New, M. I. (2004). Prenatal androgenization affects gender-related behavior but not gender identity in 5-12-year-old girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 97–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morey, L. C. (1991). The personality assessment inventory professional manual (PAI). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, P. L. (1994). Social interest and psychological androgyny: Conceptualized and tested. Individual Psychology: Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research and Practice, 50, 18–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novy, D. M., Nelson, D. V., Goodwin, J., & Rowzee, R. D. (1993). Psychometric comparability of the state-trait anxiety inventory for different ethnic subpopulations. Psychological Assessment, 5, 343–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okten, A., Kalyoncu, M., & Yaris, N. (2002). The ratio of second- and fourth-digit ratio lengths and congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Early Human Development, 70, 47–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez Blasco, J., & Serra Desfilis, E. (1997). Influence of the traditional feminine role on the anxiety symptoms in a sample of adult women. Anales de psicología, 13, 155–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, M., Laeng, B., Latham, K., Jackson, M., Zaiyouna, R., & Richardson, C. (1995). A redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse mental rotations test: Different versions and factors that affect performance. Brain and Cognition, 28, 39–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peters, M., Manning, J. T., & Reimers, S. (2007). The effects of sex, sexual orientation, and digit ratio (2D:4D) on mental rotation performance. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 251–260.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pigott, T. A. (2003). Anxiety disorders in women. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 26, 621–672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Putz, D. A., Gaulin, S. J. C., Sporter, R. J., & McBurney, D. H. (2004). Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 182–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rammsayer, T. H., & Troche, S. J. (2007). Sexual dimorphism in second-to-fourth digit ratio and its relation to gender-role orientation in males and females. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 911–920.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robert, M., & Savoie, N. (2006). Are there gender differences in verbal and visuospatial working-memory resources? European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18, 378–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Servin, A., Nordenström, A., Larsson, A., & Bohlin, G. (2003). Prenatal androgens and gender-typed behavior: A study of girls with mild and severe forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology, 39, 440–450.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shear, M. K., Feske, U., & Greeno, C. (2000). Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Clinical implications. In E. Frank (Ed.), Gender and its effects on psychopathology (pp. 151–165). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, I., & Eals, M. (1992). Sex differences in spatial abilities: Evolutionary theory, data. In J. H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind (pp. 533–549). New York: Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverman, I., Choi, J., & Peters, M. (2007). The hunter-gatherer theory of sex differences in spatial abilities: Data from 40 countries. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 261–268.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skodol, A. E. (2000). Gender-specific etiologies for antisocial and borderline personality disorders? In E. Frank (Ed.), Gender and its effects on psychopathology (pp. 37–60). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (2003). Why are women diagnosed borderline more than men? Psychiatric Quarterly, 74, 349–360.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spielberger, C. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (form Y). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, B. (1999). Journal editorial policies regarding statistical significance tests: Heat is to fire as p is to importance. Educational Psychology Review, 11, 157–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Udry, J. R. (2000). Biological limits of gender construction. American Sociological Review, 65, 443–457.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Udry, J. R., Morris, N. M., & Kovenock, J. (1995). Androgen effects on women’s gendered behaviour. Journal of Biosocial Science, 27, 359–368.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotations: A group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 599–604.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voyer, D., Postma, A., Brake, B., & Imperto-McGinley, J. (2007). Gender differences in object location memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 23–38.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walder, D. J., Andersson, T. L. C., McMillan, A. L., Breedlove, S. M., & Walker, E. F. (2006). Sex differences in digit ratio (2D:4D) are disrupted in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder: Altered prenatal gonadal hormone levels as a risk factor. Schizophrenia Research, 86, 118–124.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallen, K. (1996). Nature needs nurture: The interaction of hormonal and social influences on the development of behavioral sex differences in rhesus monkeys. Hormones and Behavior, 30, 364–378.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, N. V., & Kimura, D. (1991). Nontrivial sex differences in throwing and intercepting: Relation to psychometrically defined spatial functions. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 375–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. H. G., Greenhalgh, K. D., & Manning, J. T. (2003). Second to fourth finger ratio and the possible precursors of developmental psychopathology in preschool children. Early Human Development, 72, 57–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, K. E., & Koran, L. M. (1997). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in pregnancy, the puerperium, and the premenstruum. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58, 330–334.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, T. J., Pepitone, M. E., Christensen, M. E., Cooke, B. M., Huberman, A. D., Breedlove, N. J., et al. (2000). Finger-lengths ratios and sexual orientation. Nature, 404, 455–456.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yonkers, K. A., & Kidner, C. L. (2002). Sex differences in anxiety disorders. In F. Lewis-Hall, T. S. Williams, J. A. Panetta, & J. M. Herrera (Eds.), Psychiatric illness in women: Emerging treatments and research (pp. 5–30). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported in part by the National Institute of Mental Health grant MH071414 (GMA). The authors thank Cecil Reynolds, Ph.D. and Leslie C. Morey, Ph.D. for their input on earlier versions of this manuscript and the various graduate and undergraduate assistants who collaborated in data collection for this project: Julia Makkaoui, Liz Wiley, Chris Strachan, Travis Smith, Ebun Akindile, and Troy Song.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Texas A & M University, 4235 TAMU, College Station, TX, 77845, USA

    Milagros Evardone & Gerianne M. Alexander

Authors
  1. Milagros Evardone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gerianne M. Alexander
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gerianne M. Alexander.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Evardone, M., Alexander, G.M. Anxiety, Sex-Linked Behaviors, and Digit Ratios (2D:4D). Arch Sex Behav 38, 442–455 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9260-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9260-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation