Abstract
Understanding the mechanical behavior of proximal pulmonary arteries (PAs) is crucial to evaluating pulmonary vascular function and right ventricular afterload. Early and current efforts focus on these arteries’ histological changes, in vivo pressure–diameter behavior and mechanical properties under in vitro mechanical testing. However, the in vivo stretch and stress states remain poorly characterized. To further understand the mechanical behavior of the proximal PAs under physiological conditions, this study computed the residual stretch and the in vivo circumferential stretch state in the main pulmonary arteries in both control and hypertensive calves by using in vitro and in vivo artery geometry data, and modeled the impact of residual stretch and arterial remodeling on the in vivo circumferential stretch distribution and collagen engagement in the main pulmonary artery. We found that the in vivo circumferential stretch distribution in both groups was nonuniform across the vessel wall with the largest stretch at the outer wall, suggesting that collagen at the outer wall would engage first. It was also found that the circumferential stretch was more uniform in the hypertensive group, partially due to arterial remodeling that occurred during their hypoxic treatment, and that their onset of collagen engagement occurred at a higher pressure. It is concluded that the residual stretch and arterial remodeling have strong impact on the in vivo stretch state and the collagen engagement and thus the mechanical behavior of the main pulmonary artery in calves.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Burton, A. C. Relation of structure to function of the tissues of the wall of blood vessels. Physiol. Rev. 34:619–642, 1954.
Cacho, F., P. J. Elbischger, J. F. Rodríguez, M. Doblaré, and G. A. Holzapfel. A constitutive model for fibrous tissues considering collagen fiber crimp. Int. J. Nonlinear Mech. 42:391–402, 2007.
Canham, P. B., H. M. Finlay, J. G. Dixon, D. R. Boughner, and A. Chen. Measurements from light and polarised light microscopy of human coronary arteries fixed at distending pressure. Cardiovasc. Res. 23:973–982, 1989.
Carew, T. E., R. N. Vaishnav, and D. J. Patel. Compressibility of the arterial wall. Circ. Res. 23:61–68, 1968.
Chuong, C. J., and Y. C. Fung. Compressibility and constitutive equation of arterial wall in radial compression experiments. J. Biomech. 17:35–40, 1984.
Chuong, C. J., and Y. C. Fung. On residual stresses in arteries. J. Biomech. Eng. 108:189–192, 1986.
Clark, J. M., and S. Glagov. Transmural organization of the arterial media. The lamellar unit revisited. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 5:19–34, 1985.
Dingemans, K. P., P. Teeling, J. H. Lagendijk, and A. E. Becker. Extracellular matrix of the human aortic media: an ultrastructural histochemical and immunohistochemical study of the adult aortic media. Anat. Rec. 258:1–14, 2000.
Durmowicz, A. G., and K. R. Stenmark. Mechanisms of structural remodeling in chronic pulmonary hypertension. Pediatr. Rev. 20:91–102, 1999.
Dyer, K. L., C. J. Lanning, B. B. Das, D. D. Ivy, and R. Shandas. Development and validation of a non-invasive color M-mode tissue Doppler imaging technique for measuring pulmonary artery compliance: in vitro and clinical studies. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 19:403–412, 2006.
Elbischger, P. H., H. Bischof, P. Regitnig, and G. A. Holzapfel. Automatic analysis of collagen fiber orientation in the outermost layer of human arteries. Pattern Anal. Appl. 7:269–284, 2004.
Finlay, H. M., L. McCullough, and P. B. Canham. Three-dimensional collagen organization of human brain arteries at different transmural pressures. J. Vasc. Res. 32:301–312, 1995.
Fung, Y. C. Biodynamics: Circulation. New York: Springer, 1984.
Fung, Y. C. What are the residual stresses doing in our blood vessels? Ann. Biomed. Eng. 19:237–249, 1991.
Fung, Y. C., and S. Q. Liu. Change of residual strains in arteries due to hypertrophy caused by aortic constriction. Circ. Res. 65:1340–1349, 1989.
Fung, Y. C., and S. Q. Liu. Changes of zero-stress state of rat pulmonary arteries in hypoxic hypertension. J. Appl. Physiol. 70:2455–2470, 1991.
Fung, Y. C., and S. Q. Liu. Strain distribution in small blood vessels with zero-stress state taken into consideration. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 262:H544–H552, 1992.
Gan, C. T. J., J. W. Lankhaar, N. Westerhof, J. T. Marcus, A. Becker, J. W. R. Twisk, A. Boonstra, P. E. Postmus, and A. Vonk-Noordegraaf. Noninvasively assessed pulmonary artery stiffness predicts mortality in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Chest 132:1906–1912, 2007.
Gasser, T. C., R. W. Ogden, and G. A. Holzapfel. Hyperelastic modelling of arterial layers with distributed collagen fibre orientations. J. R. Soc. Interface 3:15–35, 2006.
Grant, B. J. B., and B. B. Lieber. Clinical significance of pulmonary arterial input impedance. Eur. Respir. J. 9:2196–2199, 1996.
Grant, B. J. B., L. J. Paradowski, and J. M. Fitzpatrick. Effect of perivascular electromagnetic flow probes on pulmonary hemodynamics. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:1885–1890, 1988.
Greenwald, S. E., J. E. Moore, A. Rachev, T. P. C. Kane, and J. J. Meister. Experimental investigation of the distribution of residual strains in the artery wall. J. Biomech. Eng. 119:438–444, 1997.
Guo, X., Y. Kono, R. Mattrey, and G. S. Kassab. Morphometry and strain distribution of the C57BL/6 mouse aorta. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 283:H1829–H1837, 2002.
Guo, X., X. Lu, and G. S. Kassab. Transmural strain distribution in the blood vessel wall. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 288:H881–H886, 2005.
Han, H. C., and Y. C. Fung. Longitudinal strain of canine and porcine aortas. J. Biomech. 28:637–641, 1995.
Han, H. C., and Y. C. Fung. Direct measurement of transverse residual strains in aorta. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 39:H750–H759, 1996.
Hatch, J. P. Using statistical equivalence testing in clinical biofeedback research. Biofeedback Self-Regul. 21:105–119, 1996.
Hayashi, K., and T. Naiki. Adaptation and remodeling of vascular wall; biomechanical response to hypertension. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2:3–19, 2009.
Holzapfel, G. A. Determination of material models for arterial walls from uniaxial extension tests and histological structure. J. Theor. Biol. 238:290–302, 2006.
Holzapfel, G. A. Collagen in arterial walls: biomechanical aspects. In: Collagen. Structure and Mechanics, Chapter 11, edited by F. P. Heidelberg. Berlin: Springer, 2008, pp. 285–324.
Holzapfel, G. A., T. C. Gasser, and R. W. Ogden. A new constitutive framework for arterial wall mechanics and a comparative study of material models. J. Elasticity 61:1–48, 2000.
Holzapfel, G. A., G. Sommer, M. Auer, P. Regitnig, and R. W. Ogden. Layer-specific 3D residual deformations of human aortas with non-atherosclerotic intimal thickening. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 35:530–545, 2007.
Huang, W., Y. P. Sher, D. Delgado-West, J. T. Wu, K. Peck, and Y. C. Fung. Tissue remodeling of rat pulmonary artery in hypoxic breathing. I. Changes of morphology, zero-stress state, and gene expression. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 29:535–551, 2001.
Humphrey, J. D. Cardiovascular Solid Mechanics. Cells, Tissues, and Organs. New York: Springer, 2002.
Hunter, K. S., J. A. Albietz, P. F. Lee, C. J. Lanning, S. R. Lammers, S. H. Hofmeister, P. H. Kao, H. J. Qi, K. R. Stenmark, and R. Shandas. In vivo measurement of proximal pulmonary artery elastic modulus in the neonatal calf model of pulmonary hypertension: development and ex vivo validation. J. Appl. Physiol. 108:968–975, 2010.
Hunter, K. S., J. K. Gross, C. J. Lanning, K. S. Kirby, K. L. Dyer, D. D. Ivy, and R. Shandas. Noninvasive methods for determining pulmonary vascular function in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension: application of a mechanical oscillator model. Congenit. Heart Dis. 3:106–116, 2008.
Hunter, K. S., C. J. Lanning, K. S. Kirby, D. D. Ivy, and R. Shandas. In Vivo pulmonary vascular stiffness obtained from color M-Mode tissue Doppler imaging and pressure measurements predicts clinical outcomes better than indexed pulmonary vascular resistance in pediatric patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Circulation 118: S879–S879, 2008.
Hunter, K. S., P. F. Lee, C. J. Lanning, D. D. Ivy, K. S. Kirby, L. R. Claussen, K. C. Chan, and R. Shandas. Pulmonary vascular input impedance is a combined measure of pulmonary vascular resistance and stiffness and predicts clinical outcomes better than pulmonary vascular resistance alone in pediatric patients with pulmonary hypertension. Am. Heart J. 155:166–174, 2008.
Kao, P. H., S. R. Lammers, L. Tian, K. Hunter, K. R. Stenmark, R. Shandas, and H. J. Qi. A microstructurally driven model for pulmonary artery tissue. J. Biomech. Eng. 133:051002, 2011.
Kobs, R. W., N. E. Muvarak, J. C. Eickhoff, and N. C. Chesler. Linked mechanical and biological aspects of remodeling in mouse pulmonary arteries with hypoxia-induced hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 288:H1209–H1217, 2005.
Lammers, S. R., P. H. Kao, H. J. Qi, K. Hunter, C. Lanning, J. Albietz, S. Hofmeister, R. Mecham, K. R. Stenmark, and R. Shandas. Changes in the structure-function relationship of elastin and its impacts on the proximal pulmonary arterial mechanics of hypertensive calves. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 295:H1451–H1459, 2008.
Lammers, S. R., P. Kao, L. Tian, K. Hunter, Z. VanRheen, J. Albietz, C. Lanning, S. Hoffmeister, s. Miyamoto, T. Kulik, H. J. Qi, R. Shandas, and K. Stenmark. Conduit arteries in small and large mammals express different material property changes in response to hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. In: ATS International Conference, New Orleans, LA, May 14–19, 2010.
Lanir, Y. A structural theory for the homogeneous biaxial stress–strain relationships in flat collagenous tissues. J. Biomech. 12:423–436, 1979.
Lanir, Y. Constitutive equations for fibrous connective tissues. J. Biomech. 16:1–12, 1983.
Liu, S. Q., and Y. C. Fung. Zero-stress states of arteries. J. Biomech. Eng. 110:82–84, 1988.
Milnor, W. R. Arterial impedance as ventricular afterload. Circ. Res. 36:565–570, 1975.
Milnor, W. R., C. R. Conti, K. B. Lewis, and M. F. O’Rourke. Pulmonary arterial pulse wave velocity and impedance in man. Circ. Res. 25:637–649, 1969.
Rachev, A., and S. E. Greenwald. Residual strains in conduit arteries. J. Biomech. 36:661–670, 2003.
Roach, M. R., and A. C. Burton. The reason for the shape of the distensibility curves of arteries. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 35:681–690, 1957.
Rodés-Cabau, J., E. Domingo, A. Román, J. Majó, B. Lara, F. Padilla, I. Anívarro, J. Angel, J. C. Tardif, and J. Soler–Soler. Intravascular ultrasound of the elastic pulmonary arteries: a new approach for the evaluation of primary pulmonary hypertension. Heart 89:311–315, 2003.
Rodríguez, J. F., C. Ruiz, M. Doblaré, and G. A. Holzapfel. Mechanical stresses in abdominal aortic aneurysms: influence of diameter, asymmetry, and material anisotropy. J. Biomech. Eng. 130:021023, 2008.
Sanz, J., M. Kariisa, S. Dellegrottaglie, S. Prat-Gonzalez, M. J. Garcia, V. Fuster, and S. Rajagopalan. Evaluation of pulmonary artery stiffness in pulmonary hypertension with cardiac magnetic resonance. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2:286–295, 2009.
Schmid, F., G. Sommer, M. Rappolt, C. A. J. Schulze-Bauer, P. Regitnig, G. A. Holzapfel, P. Laggner, and H. Amenitsch. In situ tensile testing of human aortas by time-resolved small-angle X-ray scattering. J. Synchrotron Radiat. 12:727–733, 2005.
Spencer, A. J. M. Constitutive theory for strongly anisotropic solids. In: Continuum Theory of the Mechanics of Fiber-Reinforced Composites, CISM Course and Lectures No. 282, International Centre for Mechanical Sciences, Chapter 2, edited by A. J. M. Spencer. Wien, New York: Springer, 1984, pp. 23–82.
Stenmark, K. R., K. A. Fagan, and M. G. Frid. Hypoxia-induced pulmonary vascular remodeling—cellular and molecular mechanisms. Circ. Res. 99:675–691, 2006.
Stenmark, K. R., J. Fasules, D. M. Hyde, N. F. Voelkel, J. Henson, A. Tucker, H. Wilson, and J. T. Reeves. Severe pulmonary hypertension and arterial adventitial changes in newborn calves at 4300 m. J. Appl. Physiol. 62:821–830, 1987.
Stenmark, K. R., and R. P. Mecham. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pulmonary vascular remodeling. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 59:89–144, 1997.
Stergiopulos, N., S. Vulliemoz, A. Rachev, J. J. Meister, and S. E. Greenwald. Assessing the homogeneity of the elastic properties and composition of the pig aortic media. J. Vasc. Res. 38:237–246, 2001.
Takamizawa, K., and K. Hayashi. Strain energy density function and uniform strain hypothesis for arterial mechanics. J. Biomech. 20:7–17, 1987.
Tian, L., S. R. Lammers, P. H. Kao, M. Reusser, K. R. Stenmark, K. S. Hunter, H. J. Qi, and R. Shandas. Linked opening angle and histological and mechanical aspects of the proximal pulmonary arteries of healthy and pulmonary hypertensive rats and calves. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 301:H1810–H1818, 2011.
Weinberg, C. E., J. R. Hertzberg, D. D. Ivy, K. S. Kirby, K. C. Chan, L. Valdes-Cruz, and R. Shandas. Extraction of pulmonary vascular compliance, pulmonary vascular resistance, and right ventricular work from single-pressure and Doppler flow measurements in children with pulmonary hypertension: a new method for evaluating reactivity—in vitro and clinical studies. Circulation 110:2609–2617, 2004.
Wuyts, F. L., V. J. Vanhuyse, G. J. Langewouters, W. F. Decraemer, E. R. Raman, and S. Buyle. Elastic properties of human aortas in relation to age and atherosclerosis: a structural model. Phys. Med. Biol. 40:1577–1597, 1995.
Zeller, P. J., and T. C. Skalak. Contribution of individual structural components in determining the zero-stress state in small arteries. J. Vasc. Res. 35:8–17, 1998.
Zuckerman, B. D., E. C. Orton, K. R. Stenmark, J. A. Trapp, J. R. Murphy, P. R. Coffeen, and J. T. Reeves. Alteration of the pulsatile load in the high-altitude calf model of pulmonary hypertension. J. Appl. Physiol. 70:859–868, 1991.
Zulliger, M. A., P. Fridez, K. Hayashi, and N. Stergiopulos. A strain energy function for arteries accounting for wall composition and structure. J. Biomech. 37:989–1000, 2004.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported in part by grants from the National Institutes of Health (T32-HL072738, K24-HL081506, K25-HL094749, and SCCOR-HL084923).
Conflict of interest
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Associate Editor Jane Grande-Allen oversaw the review of this article.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tian, L., Lammers, S.R., Kao, P.H. et al. Impact of Residual Stretch and Remodeling on Collagen Engagement in Healthy and Pulmonary Hypertensive Calf Pulmonary Arteries at Physiological Pressures. Ann Biomed Eng 40, 1419–1433 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-012-0509-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10439-012-0509-4