Abstract
Disturbance is integral to the organisation of riverine ecosystems. Fluctuating low flows caused by supra-seasonal drought and water management periodically dewater habitat patches, potentially creating heterogeneity in the taxonomic composition and successional dynamics of benthic communities. The frequency of disturbance induced by low flows is contingent upon the topography of the river bed and thus varies among patches. We investigated whether the frequency of patch dewatering influenced the structure and temporal dynamics of benthic algal communities attached to the upper surfaces of stones in stream mesocosms (4 m2). In a 693-day disturbance experiment, we applied short dewatering disturbances (6 days) at high (33-day cycles) and low frequencies (99-day cycles) and compared algal assemblages with undisturbed controls at 21 endpoints. In the absence of disturbance, epilithic space was dominated by the green encrusting alga Gongrosira incrustans. However, drying disturbances consistently reduced the dominance of the green alga, and crust abundance decreased with increasing disturbance frequency, thereby opening space for a diversity of mat-forming diatoms. The response of mat diatoms to disturbance varied markedly during the experiment, from strong reductions in the abundance of loosely attached mats in mid-late 2000 to the exploitation of open space by closely adhering mats in 2001. Contrary responses were attributed to changes in the species composition of mat diatoms, which influenced the physiognomy and hence stress-resistance and resilience of the assemblage. Our results indicate that patchy dewatering of habitat patches during periods of low flow influences the successional dynamics of algae, thereby creating distinctive mosaics on the stream bed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Airoldi L (1998) Roles of disturbance, sediment stress, and substratum retention on spatial dominance in algal turf. Ecology 79:2759–2770
Airoldi L (2000) Effects of disturbance, life histories, and overgrowth on coexistence of algal crusts and turfs. Ecology 81:798–814
Armitage PD (1995) Faunal community change in response to flow manipulation. In: Harper DM, Ferguson AJD (eds) The ecological basis for river management. Wiley, Chichester, pp 59–78
Bengtsson J, Baillie SR, Lawton J (1997) Community variability increases with time. Oikos 78:249–256
Biggs BJF (1996) Patterns in benthic algae of streams. In: Stevenson RJ, Bothwell ML, Lowe RL (eds) Algal ecology: freshwater benthic ecosystems. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 31–56
Biggs BJF, Thomsen HA (1995) Disturbance of stream periphyton by perturbations in shear stress: time to structural failure and differences in community resistance. J Phycol 31:233–241
Biggs BJF, Stevenson RJ, Lowe RL (1998) A habitat matrix conceptual model for stream periphyton. Arch Hydrobiol 143:21–56
Boulton AJ (2003) Parallels and contrasts in the effects of drought on stream macroinvertebrate assemblages. Freshw Biol 48:1173–1185
Casey H, Clarke RT, Marker AFH (1981) The seasonal variation in silicon concentration in chalk streams in relation to diatom growth. Freshw Biol 11:335–344
Caswell H (1978) Predator-mediated coexistence: a non-equilibrium model. Am Nat 112:127–154
Chesson P, Huntly N (1997) The roles of harsh and fluctuating conditions in the dynamics of ecological communities. Am Nat 150:519–553
Clements FE (1916) Plant succession: an analysis of the development of vegetation. Carnegie Institute Scientific Publication 242. Carnegie Institute, Washington D.C.
Collins SL (2000) Disturbance frequency and community stability in native tallgrass prairie. Am Nat 155:311–325
Connell JH (1978) Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199:1302–1310
Crawford RM (1978) Taxonomy and classification of diatom genus Melosira C.A. Agardh, III. Melosira lineata (Dillw.) C.A. Ag and Melosira varians C.A.Ag. Phycologia 17:237–250
Death RG, Zimmermann EM (2005) Interaction between disturbance and primary productivity in determining stream invertebrate diversity. Oikos 111:392–402
Dewson ZS, James ABW, Death RG (2007) Invertebrate responses to short-term water abstraction in small New Zealand streams. Freshw Biol 52:357–369
Downes BJ (1990) Patch dynamics and mobility of fauna in streams and other habitats. Oikos 59:411–413
Extence CA, Balbi DM, Chadd RP (1999) River flow indexing using British benthic macroinvertebrates: a framework for setting hydroecological objectives. Reg Riv Res Manage 15:543–574
Frid CLJ, Townsend CR (1989) An appraisal of the patch dynamics concept in stream and marine benthic communities whose members are highly mobile. Oikos 56:137–141
Fisher SG (1990) Recovery processes in lotic ecosystems: limits to successional theory. Environ Manage 14:725–736
Fisher SG, Gray LJ, Grimm NL, Busch DE (1982) Temporal succession in a desert stream following flooding. Ecol Monogr 52:93–110
Gibson CA, Meyer JL, Poff NL, Hay LE, Georgakakos A (2005) Flow regime alterations under changing climate in two river basins: implications for freshwater ecosystems. River Res Applic 21:849–864
Harris RML (2006) The effect of experimental drought disturbance on macroinvertebrates in stream mesocosms. PhD thesis. University of Birmingham, Birmingham
Harris RML, Milner AM, Armitage PD, Ledger ME (2007) Replicability of physicochemistry and macroinvertebrate assemblages in stream mesocosms: implications for experimental research. Freshw Biol 52:2434–2443
Hildrew AG, Giller PS (1992) Patchiness, species interactions and disturbance in the stream benthos. In: Giller PS, Hildrew AG, Raffaelli DG (eds) Aquatic ecology: scale, pattern and process. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, pp 21–62
Huntly N (1991) Herbivores and the dynamics of communities and ecosystems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 22:477–503
Huston MA (1979) A general hypothesis of species diversity. Am Nat 113:81–99
Hutchinson GE (1961) The paradox of the plankton. Am Nat 95:137–145
John DM (2002) The Chaetophorales, Klebsormidiales, Microsporales, Ulotrichales In: John DM, Whitton BA, Brook AJ (eds) The freshwater algal flora of the British Isles: an identification guide to freshwater and terrestrial algae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 433–467
Lake PS (2000) Disturbance, patchiness, and diversity in streams. J North Am Benthol Soc 19:573–592
Lake PS (2003) Ecological effects of perturbation by drought in flowing waters. Freshw Biol 48:1161–1172
Ledger ME, Hildrew AG (1998) Temporal and spatial variation in the epilithic biofilms of an acid stream. Freshw Biol 40:655–670
Ledger ME, Hildrew AG (2000) Resource depression by a tropic generalist in an acid stream. Oikos 90:271–278
Ledger ME, Hildrew AG (2001) Recolonization by the benthos of an acid stream following a drought. Arch Hydrobiol 152:1–17
Ledger ME, Harris RML, Milner AM, Armitage PD (2006) Disturbance, biological legacies and community development in stream mesocosms. Oecologia 148:682–691
Lepš J, Šmilauer P (2003) Multivariate analysis of ecological data using CANOCO. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Lytle DA, Poff NL (2004) Adaptation to natural flow regimes. TREE 19:94–100
Marker AFH (1976) The benthic algae of some streams in southern England, II. The primary production of the epilithon in a small chalk stream. J Ecol 64:359–373
Matthaei CD, Townsend CR (2000) Long-term effects of local disturbance history on mobile stream invertebrates. Oecologia 125:119–126
Matthaei CD, Guggelberger C, Huber H (2003) Local disturbance history affects patchiness of benthic river algae. Freshw Biol 48:1514–1526
McGrady-Steed J, Morin PJ (1996) Disturbance and the species composition of rain pool microbial communities. Oikos 76:93–102
Menge BA, Sutherland JP (1987) Community regulation: variation in disturbance, competition, and predation in relation to environmental stress and recruitment. Am Nat 130:730–757
Moore JW (1977) Seasonal succession of algae in a eutrophic stream in Southern England. Hydrobiologia 53:181–192
Pentecost A (1988) Observations on growth rates and calcium carbonate deposition in the green alga Gongrosira. New Phytol 110:249–253
Pentecost A (1991) Algal and bryophyte flora of a Yorkshire (UK) hill stream – a comparative approach using biovolume estimations. Arch Hydrobiol 121:181–201
Peterson CG (1987) Influences of flow regime on development and desiccation response of lotic diatom communities. Ecology 68:946–954
Peterson CG (1996) Response of benthic algal communities to natural physical disturbance. In: Stevenson RJ, Bothwell ML, Lowe RL (eds) Algal ecology: freshwater benthic ecosystems. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 375–402
Peterson CG, Boulton AJ (1999) Stream permanence influences microalgae food availability to grazing tadpoles in arid-zone springs. Oecologia 118:340–352
Peterson CG, Weibel AC, Grimm NB, Fisher SG (1994) Mechanisms of benthic algal recovery following spates: comparison of simulated and natural events. Oecologia 98:280–290
Peterson CG, Valett HM, Dahm CN (2001) Shifts in habitat templates for lotic microalgae linked to interannual variation in snowmelt intensity. Limnol Oceanogr 46:858–870
Petraitis PS, Latham RE, Niesenbaum RA (1989) The maintenance of species diversity by disturbance. Q Rev Biol 64:393–418
Pickett STA, White PS (eds) (1985) The ecology of natural disturbance and patch dynamics. Academic Press, London
Pimm SL (1991) The balance of nature? Ecological issues in the conservation of species and communities. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Power ME, Stewart AJ (1987) Disturbance and recovery of an algal assemblage following flooding in an Oklahoma stream. Am Mid Nat 117:333–345
Resh VH, Brown AV, Covich AP, Gurtz ME, Li hW, Minshall GW, Reice SR, Sheldon AL, Wallace JB, Wissmar RC (1988) The role of disturbance in stream ecology. J North Am Benthol Soc 14:433–455
Reice SR (1985) Experimental disturbance and the maintenance of species diversity in a stream community. Oecologia 67:90–97
Robson BJ (2000) The role of residual biofilm in the recolonization of rocky intermittent streams by benthic algae. Mar Freshw Res 51:725–732
Robson BJ, Matthews TG (2004) Drought refuges affect algal recolonization in intermittent streams. River Res Appl 20:753–763
Round FE, Crawford RM, Mann DG (1990) The diatoms: biology, morphology of the genera. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Ruetz CR, Trexler JC, Jordan F, Loftus WF, Perry SA (2005) Population dynamics of wetland fishes: spatio-temporal patterns synchronized by hydrological disturbance. J Anim Ecol 74:322–332
Sabater S (1990) Composition and dynamics of a highly diverse diatom assemblage in a limestone stream. Hydrobiologia 190:43–53
Shorrocks B, Rosewell J (1987) Spatial patchiness and community structure: coexistence and guild size of Drosophilids on ephemeral resources. In: Gee JHR, Giller PS (eds) Organization of communities: past and present. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 29–51
Sickogoad L, Andresen NA (1991) Effect of growth and light dark cycles on diatom lipid content and composition. J Phycol 27:710–718
Sokal RR, Rohlf FJ (1995) Biometry: the principles and practice of statistics in biological research, 3rd edn. W.H. Freeman, New York
Sousa WP (1979) Disturbance in marine intertidal boulder fields: the nonequilibrium maintenance of species diversity. Ecology 60:1225–1239
Stanley EH, Fisher SG, Grimm NB (1997) Ecosystem expansion and contraction in streams. BioScience 47:427–436
Stanley EH, Fisher SG, Jones JB (2004) Effects of water loss on primary production: A landscape-scale model. Aquatic Sci 66:130–138
Steinman AD, McIntire CD (1990) Recovery of lotic periphyton communities after disturbance. Environ Manage 14:589–604
Stromberg JC, Bagstad KJ, Leenhouts JM, Lite SJ, Makings E (2005) Effects of stream flow intermittency on riparian vegetation of a semiarid region river (San Pedro River, Arizona). River Res Applic 21:925–938
Ter Braak CJF, Šmilauer P (2002) CANOCO reference manual and CanoDraw for Windows user guide: software for canonical community ordination (version 4.5). Microcomputer Power, Ithaca, NY
Tilman D (1982) Resource competition and community structure. Princeton University Press, Princeton
Tilman D (1990) Constraints and trade-offs: toward a predictive theory of competition and succession. Oikos 58:3–15
Townsend CR (1989) The patch dynamics concept of stream community ecology. J North Am Benthol Soc 8:36–50
Trexler JC, Loftus WF, Perry S (2005) Disturbance frequency and community structure in a twenty-five year intervention study. Oecologia 145:140–152
Turner MG, Baker WL, Peterson CJ, Peet RK (1998) Factors influencing succession: lessons from large, infrequent natural disturbances. Ecosystems 1:511–523
Wootton JT (1998) Effects of disturbance on species diversity: a multitrophic perspective. Am Nat 152:803–825
Yodzis P (1986) Competition, mortality and community structure. In: Diamond JM, Case TJ (eds) Community ecology. Harper and Row, New York, pp 480–491
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the staff at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Dorset, UK, for supporting this research. MEL was funded by a Freshwater Biological Association (FBA) and Natural Environment Research Council Pioneer Research Fellowship, and RMLH was supported by an FBA and NERC studentship. Algal taxonomy was verified by Drs. Elizabeth Haworth (FBA), Allan Pentecost (Kings College London) and Carl Sayer (University College London). Prof. Mike Winterbourn, Dr. Belinda Robson and an anonymous referee provided valuable comments on earlier drafts of the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by Dag Olav Hessen.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ledger, M.E., Harris, R.M.L., Armitage, P.D. et al. Disturbance frequency influences patch dynamics in stream benthic algal communities. Oecologia 155, 809–819 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0950-5
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-007-0950-5