Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sex differences in the determination of adolescent aspirations: A review of research

  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This article reviews research on sex differences in the educational and occupational orientations of adolescents. Because the aspirations and expectations of adolescents are predictive of subsequent adult attainment, these variables are important mediating factors in the process by which individuals of the two sexes come to occupy different educational and occupational positions in adulthood. Adolescent boys aspire to a higher level of education than girls, and the occupational choices of the two sexes are highly sex-stereotyped. Factors influencing levels of adolescent aspiration are reviewed, including socioeconomic background, academic ability, number of siblings, parental encouragement, mother's employment, academic performance, peer aspirations, dating, and participation in school activities. Although sex differences exist in the process by which both educational and occupational aspirations are formed, they are greater with respect to occupational than educational aspirations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alexander, C. N., Jr., & Campbell, E. Q. Peer influences on adolescent educational aspirations and attainments. American Sociological Review, 1964, 29, 568–575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, K. L. Contextual effects and the educational and occupational attainment process: A longitudinal analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1972.

  • Alexander, K. L., & Eckland, B. K. Sex differences in the educational attainment process. American Sociological Review, 1974, 39, 668–682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, K. L., Eckland, B. K., & Griffin, L. J. The Wisconsin model of socioeconomic achievement: A replication. American Journal of Sociology, 1975, 81, 324–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Almquist, E., & Angrist, S. Role model influences on college women's career aspirations. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 1971, 17, 263–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angrist, S. S., & Almquist, E. M. Careers and contingencies. New York: Dunellen, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Astin, H. S. Career development of girls during the high school years. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1968, 15, 536–540. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Astin, H. S. Stability and change in the career plans of ninth grade girls. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1968, 46, 961–966. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Astin, H. S., & Myint, T. Career development and stability of young women during the post high school years. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1971, 18, 369–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahr, S. J. Effects on power and division of labor in the family. In L. W. Hoffman and F. I. Nye, (Eds.), Working mothers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banducci, R. The effect of mother's employment on the achievement, aspirations, and expectations of the child. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1967, 46, 263–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayer, A. E. Marriage plans and educational aspirations. American Journal of Sociology, 1969, 75, 239–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, D. C., & O'Dowd, D. D. Students and the occupational world. In N. Sanford (Ed.), The American college. New York: Wiley, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, W. S., Jr., & Gist, N. P. Class and family influences on student aspirations. Social Forces, 1964, 43, 167–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blau, P. M., & Duncan, O. D. The American occupational structure. New York: Wiley, 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boocock, S. S. An introduction to the sociology of learning. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bordua, D. J. Educational aspirations and parental stress on college. Social Forces, 1960, 38, 262–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, W. G., & Finegan, T. A. The economics of labor force participation. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, W. A., Jr. Correlates of vocational preferences. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1943, 28, 99–169.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burchinal, L. G. The premarital dyad and love involvement. In H. T. Christensen (Ed.), Handbook of marriage and the family. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, E. Q., & Alexander, C. N., Jr. Structural effects and interpersonal relationships. American Journal of Sociology, 1965, 71, 284–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caplow, T. The sociology of work. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, N. D. The effects of sex and marital status on a social-psychological model of occupational status attainment. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1972.

  • Cohen, E. G. Parental factors in educational mobility. Sociology of Education, 1965, 38, 405–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole, C. C. Encouraging scientific talent. New York: College Entrance Examination Broad, 1956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S. The adolescent society. New York: The Free Press, 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, J. S., Blum, Z. D., Sørensen, A. B., & Rossi, P. H. White and Black careers during the first decade of labor force experience. Part I. Occupational status. Social Science Research, 1972, 1, 243–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutright, P. Students' decisions to attend college. Journal of Educational Research, 1960, 33, 292–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douvan, E., & Adelson, J. The adolescent experience. New York: Wiley, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, O. D., Featherman, D. L., & Duncan, B. Socioeconomic background and achievement. New York: Seminar Press, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, O. D., Haller, A. O., & Portes, A. Peer influences on aspirations: A reinterpretation. American Journal of Sociology, 1968, 74, 119–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H. Appearance and education in marriage mobility. American Sociological Review, 1969, 34, 519–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Empey, L. T. Social class and occupational aspiration: A comparison of absolute and relative measurement. American Sociological Review, 1956, 21, 703–709.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entwisle, D. R., & Greenberger, E. Adolescents' views of women's work role. American Journal of Ortho-Psychiatry, 1972, 42, 648–656.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ezell, L. B., & Tate, H. H. High school students look to the future. Journal of Educational Research, 1955, 49, 217–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Featherman, D. L., & Hauser, R. M. Sexual inequalities and socioeconomic achievement in the U.S., 1962–1973. American Sociological Review, 1976, 41, 462–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferriss, A. L. Indicators of trends in the status of American women. New York: Russell Sage, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finegan, T. A. Participation of married women in the labor force. In C. B. Lloyd (Ed.), Sex, discrimination and the division of labor. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, J. C., Davis, F. B., Dailey, J. T., Shaycroft, M. F., Orr, D. B., Goldberg, I., & Neyman, C. A., Jr. The American high school student (Final report for Cooperative Research Project No. 635, U.S. Office of Education). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fortner, M. L. Vocational choices of high school girls: Can they be predicted? Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1970, 18, 203–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, C. Looking ahead: Self-conceptions, race and family as determinants of adolescent orientation to achievement. Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association Monograph, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grigg, C. M., & Middleton, R. Community of orientation and occupational aspirations of ninth grade students. Social Forces, 1960, 38, 303–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, E. Plus ca change...? The sexual structure of occupations over time. Social Problems, 1968, 16, 198–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haller, A. O., & Butterworth, C. E. Peer influences on levels of occupational and educational aspiration. Social Forces, 1960, 38, 289–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmon, L. W. The childhood and adolescent career plans of college women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1971, 1(1), 45–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, F. Aspirations as related to school performance and socioeconomic status. Sociometry, 1969, 32, 70–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, R. E. A developmental view of female sex-role identification. In B. J. Biddle & J. Thomas (Eds.), Role theory: Concepts and research. New York: Wiley, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, R. M. Socioeconomic background and educational performance. Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association Monograph, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, R. M. Disaggregating a social-psychological model of educational attainment. Social Science Research, 1972, 1, 159–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, R. M. Contextual analysis revisited. Sociological Methods and Research, 1974, 2, 365–375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herriott, R. E. Some social determinants of educational aspiration. Harvard Educational Review, 1963, 33, 157–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horner, M. S. Femininity and successful achievement: A basic inconsistency. In Feminine Personality and Conflict. Belmont, Calif.: Brooks-Cole, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hout, M., & Morgan, W. R. Race and sex variations in the causes of the expected attainments of high school seniors. American Journal of Sociology, 1975, 81, 364–394.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyman, H. H. The value systems of different classes: A social psychological contribution to the analysis of stratification. In R. Bendix and S. M. Lipset (Eds.), Class, status, and power. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1953.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffe, A. J., & Adams, W. College education for U.S. youth: The attitudes of parents and children. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 1964, 23, 269–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jencks, C., Smith, M., Acland, H., Bane, M. J., Cohen, D., Gintis, H., Heyns, B., and Mickelson, S. Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York: Basic Books, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahl, J. A. Educational and occupational aspirations of “common man” boys. Harvard Educational Review, 1953, 23, 186–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Lesser, G. S. Youth in two worlds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keislar, E. R. Peer group ratings of high school pupils with high and low school marks. Journal of Experimental Education, 1955, 23, 375–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerckhoff, A. C. Ambition and attainment. Washington, D.C.: American Sociological Association Monograph, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohout, V. A., & Rothney, J. W. M. A longitudinal study of vocational preferences. American Educational Research Journal, 1964, 1, 10–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraus, I. Sources of educational aspirations among working-class youth. American Sociological Review, 1964, 29, 867–879.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuvlesky, W. P., & Bealer, R. C. The relevance of adolescents' occupational aspirations for subsequent job attainments. Rural Sociology, 1967, 32, 290–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavin, D. E. The prediction of academic performance. New York: Russell Sage, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman-Blumen, J. How ideology shapes women's lives. Scientific American, 1972, 226, 34–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipset, S. M., & Bendix, R. Social mobility in industrial society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. E. Sex differences in intellectual functioning. In E. E. Maccoby (Ed.), The development of sex differences. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marini, M. M. Sex differences in adolescent aspirations and expectations. Unpublished manuscript, Johns Hopkins University, 1972.

  • Marini, M. M. Individual and contextual influences on the future orientations of adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1974.

  • Marini, M. M. & Greenberger, E. Sex differences in education aspirations and expectations. American Educational Research Journal, 1978, 15, 67–79. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Marini, M. M., & Greenberger, E. Sex differences in occupational aspirations and expectations. Sociology of Work and Occupations, 1978, 5, 147–178. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, E., & Tiedeman, D. V. Attitudes toward career and marriage and the development of life style in young women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1964, 11, 375–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClendon, M. J. The occupational status attainment processes of males and females. American Sociological Review, 1976, 41, 52–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDill, E. L., & Coleman, J. S. High school social status, college plans, and interest in academic achievement: A panel analysis. American Sociological Review, 1963, 28, 905–918.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDill, E. L., & Coleman, J. S. Family and peer influences in college plans of high school students. Sociology of Education, 1965, 38, 112–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulvey, M. C. Psychological and sociological factors in prediction of career patterns of women. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1963, 68, 309–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nam, C. B. Family patterns of educational attainment. Sociology of Education, 1965, 38, 393–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nye, F. I. Sociocultural context. In L. W. Hoffman and F. I. Nye (Eds.), Working mothers. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olive, H. Sex differences in adolescent vocational preferences. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1973, 21, 199–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Otto, L. B. Extracurricular activities in the educational attainment process. Rural Sociology, 1975, 40, 162–176.

    Google Scholar 

  • Otto, L. B., Haller, A. O., Meier, R. F., & Ohlendorf, G. W. An empirical evaluation of a scale to measure occupational aspiration level. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1974, 5, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papalia, D. E., & Tennent, S. S. Vocational aspirations in preschoolers: A manifestation of early sex role stereotyping. Sex Roles, 1975, 1, 197–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polachek, S. W. Discontinuous labor force participation and its effect on women's market earnings. In C. B. Lloyd (Ed.), Sex, discrimination and the division of labor. New York: Columbia University Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poloma, M. M., & Garland, T. N. The myth of the egalitarian family: Familial roles and the professionally employed wife. In A. Theodore (Ed.), The professional woman. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter, R. J. Predicting vocational plans of high school senior boys. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1954, 33, 215–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Portes, A., Haller, A. O., & Sewell, W. H. Professional-executive vs. farming as unique occupational choices. Rural Sociology, 1968, 33, 153–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehberg, R. A. Adolescent career aspirations and expectations: Evaluation of two contrary stratification hypotheses. Pacific Sociological Review, 1967, 10, 81–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehberg, R. A., & Schafer, W. E. Participation in interscholastic athletics and college expectations. American Journal of Sociology, 1968, 73, 732–740.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehberg, R. A., Sinclair, J., & Schafer, W. E. Adolescent achievement behavior, family authority structure, and parental socialization practices. American Journal of Sociology, 1970, 75, 1012–1034.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehberg, R. A., & Westby, D. L. Parental encouragement, occupation, education, and family size: Artifactual or independent determinants of adolescent educational expectations? Social Forces, 1967, 45, 362–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rezler, G. Characteristics of high school girls choosing traditional or pioneer vocations. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1967, 45, 659–665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, B. C. The achievement syndrome: A psychocultural dimension of social stratification. American Sociological Review, 1956, 21, 203–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. Occupations and values. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossi, P. H. Social factors in academic achievement: A brief review. In A. H. Halsey, J. Floud, & C. A. Anderson (Eds.), Education, economy and society. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, J. L., & Rothney, J. W. Variability of vocational choices of high school students. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1955, 34, 142–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H. Community of residence and college plans. American Sociological Review, 1964, 29, 24–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., Haller, A. O., & Ohlendorf, G. W. The educational and early occupational attainment process: Replication and revision. American Sociological Review, 1970, 35, 1014–1027.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., Haller, A. O., & Straus, M. A. Social status and educational and occupational aspiration. American Sociological Review, 1957, 22, 67–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., & Hauser, R. M. Education, occupation and earnings. New York: Academic Press, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., & Orenstein, A. M. Community of residence and occupational choice. American Journal of Sociology, 1964, 70, 551–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., & Shah, V. P. Socioeconomic status, intelligence, and the attainment of higher education. Sociology of Education, 1967, 40, 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., & Shah, V. P. Parents' education and children's educational aspirations and achievements. American Sociological Review, 1968, 33, 191–209. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sewell, W. H., & Shah, V. P. Social class, parental encouragement, and educational aspirations. American Journal of Sociology, 1968, 73, 559–572. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Shea, J. R., Roderick, R. D., Zeller, F. A., & Kohen, A. I. Years for decision: A longitudinal study of educational and labor market experience of young women, Vol. 1. (U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Research Monograph No. 24). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, E., & Curtis, E. A. Familial correlates of orientation toward future employment among college women. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1963, 54, 33–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, R. L. Parental influence, anticipatory socialization, and social mobility. American Sociological Review, 1962, 27, 517–522.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spady, William G. Lament for the letterman: Effects of peer status and extracurricular activities on goals and achievement. American Journal of Sociology, 1970, 75, 680–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spaeth, J. L. Differences in the occupational achievement process between male and female college graduates. Sociology of Education, 1977, 50, 206–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinmann, A., & Fox, D. J. Male—female perceptions of the female role in the United States. Journal of Psychology, 1966, 64, 265–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinmann, A., Levi, J., & Fox, D. J. Self-concept of college women compared with their concept of ideal woman and men's ideal woman. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1964, 11, 370–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson, R. M. Mobility orientation and stratification of 1,000 ninth graders. American Sociological Review, 1957, 22, 204–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suter, L. E., and Miller, H. P. Income differences between men and career women. American Journal of Sociology, 1973, 78, 962–974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweet, J. A. Women in the labor force. New York: Seminar Press, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tangri, S. S. Determinants of occupational role innovation among college women. Journal of Social Issues, 1972, 28, 177–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, P. A., & Glenn, N. D. The utility of education and attractiveness for females' status attainment through marriage. American Sociological Review, 1976, 41, 484–498.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treiman, D. J., & Terrell, K. Sex and the process of status attainment: A comparison of working women and men. American Sociological Review, 1975, 40, 174–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trow, W. C. Phantasy and vocational choice. Occupations, 1941, 20, 89–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. H. The social context of ambition. San Francisco: Chandler, 1964. (a)

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. H. Some aspects of women's ambition. American Journal of Sociology, 1964, 70, 271–285. (b)

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. H. On neighborhood context and college plans, I. American Sociological Review, 1966, 31, 698–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, L. E. The antecedents of two varieties of vocational interests. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1964, 70, 177–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • U. S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau. 1975 handbook on women workers. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, W. L. The perspective of college women. In Student culture: Social structure and continuity. Chicago: Aldine, 1966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watley, J. Career or marriage: A longitudinal study of able young women. NMSC Research Reports, 5(7). Evanston: National Merit Scholarship Corporation, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weil, M. W. An analysis of the factors influencing married women's actual or planned work participation. American Sociological Review, 1961, 26, 91–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werts, C. E. Social class and initial career choice of college freshmen. Sociology of Education, 1966, 39, 74–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werts, C. E. Career choice patterns. Sociology of Education, 1967, 40, 348–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werts, C. E. A comparison of male vs. female college attendance probabilities. Sociology of Education, 1968, 41, 103–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, K. Social background variables related to career commitment of women teachers. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1967, 45, 649–652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, T. H. Educational aspirations: Longitudinal evidence on their development in Canadian youth. Sociology of Education, 1972, 45, 107–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, A. B. Residential segregation of social class and aspirations of high school boys. American Sociological Review, 1959, 24, 836–845.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K. L., & Portes, A. The educational attainment process: Results from a national sample. American Journal of Sociology, 1975, 81, 343–363.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Battelle Human Affairs Research Centers, 4000 N.E. 41st Street, 98105, Seattle, Washington

    Margaret Mooney Marini

Authors
  1. Margaret Mooney Marini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

The author wishes to thank Elizabeth Bates Harkins for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article and Susan M. Ball and Adeline Dinger for typing the manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Marini, M.M. Sex differences in the determination of adolescent aspirations: A review of research. Sex Roles 4, 723–753 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287335

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287335

Keywords

Search

Navigation