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Gender inclusion and rebel strategy: legitimacy seeking behavior in rebel groups

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Abstract

Women’s participation in conflict settings has long intrigued scholars, and for good reason: women play a wide variety of purposeful roles. However, there are numerous challenges associated with clearly defining the impact of their participation. Often, women are seen in a lens of victimhood—of war, terrorism, and repressive societies—overlooking their impacts. This article examines how women’s participation in rebel groups interacts with other strategic measures those groups take to enhance international perceptions. To achieve their goals and govern effectively, rebel groups require both domestic and international legitimacy. This article is based on the premise that aspiring for legitimacy shapes rebel groups’ behaviors. In particular, the strategic inclusion of women interacts with other legitimacy-seeking metrics, often leading to greater support from states, international organizations, and transnational advocacy groups. Using a mixed methods approach, this article demonstrates, through a large N analysis and a case study of the Karen National Union, that the strategies rebel groups deploy in order to gain legitimacy are linked to gender participation. Namely, rebel groups that have foreign affairs departments, official Twitter presence, and have committed to the Geneva Call are also more likely to have women participants in various roles. The results of our analysis indicate that the strategic participation of women is associated with both the chosen institutional arrangements of rebel groups and external legitimacy metrics. This article concludes with a discussion of the implications of the strategic involvement of women cannot be examined in isolation from other aspects of rebel strategy.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, 100 Eggers, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA

    Heidi Stallman & Falak Hadi

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  1. Heidi Stallman
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Correspondence to Heidi Stallman.

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Appendix 1: Rebel groups

Appendix 1: Rebel groups

ABSDF

All-Burma Students Democratic Front

ADF

Alliance of Democratic Forces

AFRC

Armed Forces Revolutionary Council

al-Mahdi Army

al-Mahdi Army

al-Murabitun

al-Murabitun

ALP

Arakan Liberation Party

al-Qaida

al-Qaida

al-Shabaab

al-Shabaab

Amal Movement

Amal Movement

ANC

African National Congress

ANLP

Arakan National Liberation Party

Ansar al-Islam

Ansar al-Islam

Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis

Ansar Bayt al-Maqdis

Ansar Dine

Ansar Dine

Ansarallah

Ansarallah

anti-Balaka

anti-Balaka

APCLS

Alliance of Patriots for a Free and Sovereign Congo

APF/PFA

Azerbaijani Popular Front

AQAP

al-Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula

AQIM

al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb

ARDUF

Afar Revolutionary Democratic Unity Front

ASG

Abu Sayyaf Group

ATNMC

North Mali Tuareg Alliance for Change

ATTF

All Tripura Tiger Force

Bandera Roja

Red Flag

BDK

Kingdom of Kongo

BIFM

Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Movement

Boko Haram

Group of the People of Sunnah for Dawah and Jihad

BRA

Bougainville Revolutionary Army

Chechen Republic of Ichkeria

Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (Republic of Chechnya)

CMA

Coalition for Azawad Movements

CNDD-FDD

National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy

CNDP

National Congress for the Defence of the People

CPB

Communist Party of Burma

CPI-Maoist

Communist Party of India-Maoist

CPJP

Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace

CPN-M

Communist Party of Nepal-Maoist

CPP/NPA

Communist Party of the Philippines/New People’s Army

Croatian Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina

Croatian Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina

Darfur Joint Resistance Forces

Darfur Joint Resistance Forces

Democratic Republic of Yemen

Democratic Republic of Yemen

DHKP-C/Devrimci Sol

Revolutionary Left

DKBA5

Democratic Karen Buddhist Army Brigade 5

Donetsk People’s Republic

Donetsk People’s Republic

EDU

Ethiopian Democratic Union

EIJM-AS

Eritrean Islamic Jihad Movement-Abu Suhail faction

ELF

Eritrean Liberation Front

ELN

National Liberation Army

ELN

National Liberation Army

ELN

National Liberation Army

EPR

Popular Revolutionary Army

EPRDF

Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front

EPRLF

Eelam People’s Revolutionary Liberation Front

EPRP

Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party

ERP

People’s Revolutionary Army

ETA

Basque Homeland and Liberty

ETIM/TIP

East Turkestan Islamic Movement/Turkistan Islamic Party

EZLN

Zapatista National Liberation Army

FARC

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia

Fatah

Fatah

FDLR

Democratic Liberation Forces of Rwanda

FDSI-CI

Invisible Commandos / Impartial Defense and Security Forces-Ivory Coast

FLEC-FAC

Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda

FMLN

Farabundo Martí Front for National Liberation

FNLA

Union of Angolan Peoples

FPL

Farabundo Marti Popular Liberation Forces

Frelimo

Mozambique Liberation Front

Fretilin

Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor

Frolinat

National Liberation Front of Chad

FRUD-AD

Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy-Ahmed Dini faction

FSLN

Sandinista National Liberation Front

FUCD

Rally for Democracy and Liberty

FUNCINPEC

United National Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful and Cooperative Cambodia

GAM

Free Aceh Movement

GIA

Armed Islamic Group

GNLA

Garo National Liberation Army

Hamas

Islamic Resistance Movement

Harakat-i Inqilab-i Islami-yi Afghanistan

Islamic Movement of Afghanistan

Harakat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan

Islamic Movement

Hezbollah

Hezbollah

Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan

Islamic Party of Afghanistan

Hizb-i Islami-yi Afghanistan-Khalis faction

Islamic Party of Afghanistan-Khalis faction

Hizb-i Wahdat

Unity Party

Hizbul Islam

Islamic Party

HSM

Holy Spirit Movement

IMU

Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan

INPFL

Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia

IS

Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant

Ittihad-i Islami Bara-yi Azadi-yi Afghanistan

Islamic Union for the Freedom of Afghanistan

Jabha-yi Nijat-i Milli-yi Afghanistan

Afghanistan National Liberation Front

Jamaat al-Muslimeen

Muslim Society

Jam’iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan

Jam’iyyat-i Islami-yi Afghanistan

JEM

Justice and Equality Movement

JIG

Jihad Islamic Group

Junbish-i Milli-yi Islami

National Islamic Movement

Kashmir insurgents

Kashmir insurgents

Kata Katanga

Kata Katanga

KCP

Kangleipak Communist Party

KDP

Kurdish Democratic Party

KDPI

Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan

KIO

Kachin Independence Organization

KNF

Kuki National Front

KNPP

Karenni National Progressive Party

KNU

Karen National Union

KNUFNS

Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation

LNUP

Lahu National Unity Party

Lord’s Army

Lord’s Army

LPR

Lugansk People’s Republic

LRA

Lord’s Resistance Army

LRM

Lao Resistance Movement

LTTE

Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam

M23

March 23 Movement

Mahaz-i Milli-yi Islami-yi Afghanistan

National Islamic Front of Afghanistan

Maidan

Maidan

MCC

Maoist Communist Centre

MEK

People’s Mujahedin Organization of Iran

MFDC

Movement of the Democratic Forces of the Casamance

MILF

Moro Islamic Liberation Front

MIR

Movement of the Revolutionary Left

MKP

Maoist Communist Party

MNDAA

Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army

MNJ

Niger Movement for Justice

MNLF

Moro National Liberation Front

MNLF-HM

Moro National Liberation Front-Habier Malik faction

MNLF-NM

Moro National Liberation Front-Nur Misuari faction

MPA

Popular Movement for the Liberation of Azawad

MPA/Republic of Anjouan

Anjouan People’s Movement/Republic of Anjouan

MPLA

Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola

MTD

Togolese Movement for Democracy

MUJAO

Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa

Muslim Brotherhood

Muslim Brotherhood

NDF

National Democratic Front

NDFB

National Democratic Front for Bodoland

NDFB-RD

National Democratic Front for Bodoland-Ranjan Daimary faction

NDFB-S

National Democratic Front for Bodoland-Songbijit faction

NDPVF

Niger Delta People’s Volunteer Force

Ninjas

Ninjas

NLFT

National Liberation Front of Tripura

NLFT-B

National Liberation Front of Tripura-Biswamohan faction

NMSP

New Mon State Party

NRF

National Redemption Front

NSCN-IM

National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Isaac Muivah faction

NSCN-K

National Socialist Council of Nagaland-Khaplang faction

ONLF

Ogaden National Liberation Front

OPM

Organization for a Free Papua

PAIGC

African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde

Palipehutu-FNL

Party for the Liberation of the Hutu People-Forces for National Liberation

Patani insurgents

Patani insurgents

PBCP

Purbo Banglar Communist Party

PBCP-J

Purbo Banglar Communist Party-Janajudhha faction

PDPA

People’s Democratic Republic of Afghanistan

PFLP

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine

PFLP-GC

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command

PFNR

Popular Front for National Renaissance

PIJ

Palestinian Islamic Jihad

PIRA

Provisional Irish Republican Army

PJAK

Free Life Party of Kurdistan

PKK

Kurdistan Worker’s Party

PLA

People’s Liberation Army

PLO

Palestine Liberation Organization

PMR

Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic/Transnistria

POLISARIO

Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro

PRC

Popular Resistance Committees

PREPAK

People’s Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak

PSLF/TNLF/A

Palaung State Liberation Front/Ta’ang National Liberation Force/Army

PUK

Patriotic Union of Kurdistan

PULF

People’s United Liberation Front

PWG

People’s War Group

PYD

Democratic Union Party

RAFD

Rally of Democratic Forces

RCSS/SSA-South

Restoration Council of Shan State

Renamo

Mozambican National Resistance

Republic of Abkhazia

Republic of Abkhazia

Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh

Republic of Artsakh/Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh

Republic of South Ossetia

Republic of South Ossetia

Republic of South Sudan

Republic of South Sudan

Résistance Armée Tunisienne

Tunisian Resistance Army

RIRA

Real Irish Republican Army

RJF

Islamic Army of Iraq

RPF

Rohingya Patriotic Front

RSO

Rohingya Solidarity Organisation

RUF

Revolutionary United Front

SALF

Somali Abo Liberation Front

SARC

Sudanese Awakening Revolutionary Council

Seleka

Seleka

Serbian Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina

Serbian Republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina

Signed-in-Blood Battalion

Signed-in-Blood Battalion

Sikh insurgents

Sikh insurgents

SLM

Sidama Liberation Movement

SLM/A

Sudan Liberation Movement/Army

SLM/A-MM

Sudan Liberation Movement/Army-Minni Minawi faction

SLM/A-Unity

Sudan Liberation Movement/Army-Unity faction

SNM

Somali National Movement

SPLM/A

Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement/Army

SPLM/A-In Opposition

Sudanese People’s Liberation Movement/Army-In Opposition

SPLM/A-North

Sudan People’s Liberation Movement-North

SPM

Somali Patriotic Movement

SRF

Sudan Revolutionary Front

SRRC

Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council

SSDF

Somali Salvation Democratic Front

SSDM/A

South Sudan Democratic Movement/Army

SSDM/A-Cobra

South Sudan Democratic Movement-Cobra faction

SSLM/A

South Sudan Liberation Movement/Army

SSNLO

Shan State Nationalities Liberation Organization

SSPP/SSA-N

Shan State Progress Party

SWAPO

South West Africa People’s Organization

Syrian insurgents (Free Syrian Army, FSA)

Syrian insurgents (Free Syrian Army, FSA)

Taleban

Taleban

TELO

Tamil Eelam Liberation Organization

TPLF

Tigray People’s Liberation Front

UCK/KLA

Kosovo Liberation Army

UCK/NLA

National Liberation Army

UFDD

Union Force for Democracy and Development

UFR

Union of Forces for the Resistance

UFRA

Union of Forces of the Armed Resistance

ULFA

United Liberation Front of Assam

UNITA

National Union for the Total Independence of Angola

United Armed Forces of Novorossiya

United Armed Forces of Novorossiya

UNLF

United National Liberation Front

UNLF

Uganda National Liberation Front

UNRF

Uganda National Rescue Front

USC/SNA

United Somali Congress/Somali National Alliance

USC/SSA

United Somali Congress/Somali Salvation Alliance

UTO

United Tajik Opposition

UWSA

United Wa State Army

WSB

West Side Boys

Zintan Brigades

Zintan Brigades

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Stallman, H., Hadi, F. Gender inclusion and rebel strategy: legitimacy seeking behavior in rebel groups. Int Polit (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-024-00561-0

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