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Cultural congruence or compensation? A meta-analytic test of transformational and transactional leadership effects across cultures

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One can no more understand leadership than any other social process without taking into account, first, the group situation in which it occurs and secondly, the culture patterns concerned.

- Young (1927), cited in Stackhouse, Kirkman, Steel, and Taras (2018: 206).

Abstract

Prior research is equivocal about whether leadership is more effective when it matches typical cultural practices (the cultural congruence argument) or compensates for "ineffective" cultural practices (the cultural compensation argument). We propose that a more nuanced answer to the congruence-versus-compensation debate requires the joint consideration of leadership, culture, and task contexts. A meta-analysis of 460 field samples of transformational leadership (N = 124,646) and 139 field samples of transactional leadership (N = 38,327) across 53 cultures revealed three key results: First, both transformational and transactional leadership universally relate positively to follower performance outcomes. The strength of these relationships ranges between 0.25 and 0.39 for transformational leadership and between 0.12 and 0.24 for transactional leadership. Second, the positive effects of transformational leadership on convergent performance outcomes are more pronounced in cultures characterized by norms of vertical differentiation (including high power distance) and harmony (including collectivism), consistent with the cultural congruence perspective. Third, the positive effects of transactional leadership on divergent performance outcomes are more pronounced in cultures characterized by norms of low performance-focus (including low uncertainty avoidance), consistent with the cultural compensation perspective. We discuss the implications of these findings for transformational and transactional leadership research and practice.

Résumé

Les recherches précédentes sont équivoques quant à savoir si le leadership est plus efficace lorsqu'il correspond aux pratiques culturelles typiques (l'argument de la congruence culturelle) ou compense les pratiques culturelles " inefficaces " (l'argument de la compensation culturelle). Nous proposons qu'une réponse plus nuancée au débat congruence vs compensation nécessite la prise en compte conjointe du leadership, de la culture et du contexte de la tâche. Une méta-analyse de 460 échantillons de leadership transformationnel (N = 124,646) et 139 échantillons de leadership transactionnel (N = 38,327) dans 53 cultures a révélé trois résultats clés : Premièrement, à l’échelle universelle, les leaderships transformationnel et transactionnel sont positivement liés aux résultats de performance des subordonnés. La force de ces relations varie entre 0.25 et 0.39 pour le leadership transformationnel et entre 0.12 et 0.24 pour le leadership transactionnel. Deuxièmement, les impacts positifs du leadership transformationnel sur les résultats de performance convergente sont plus prononcés dans les cultures caractérisées par des normes de différenciation verticale (y compris une distance de pouvoir élevée) et d'harmonie (y compris le collectivisme), ce qui correspond à la perspective de la congruence culturelle. Troisièmement, les impacts positifs du leadership transactionnel sur les résultats de performance divergente sont plus prononcés dans les cultures caractérisées par des normes de faible concentration sur la performance (y compris un faible évitement de l'incertitude), ce qui correspond à la perspective de la compensation culturelle. Nous discutons des implications de ces résultats pour la recherche et la pratique des leaderships transformationnel et transactionnel.

Resumen

Las investigaciones anteriores han sido ambiguas sobre si el liderazgo es más efectivo cuando coincide con costumbres culturales típicas (el argumento de la congruencia cultural) o compensa las costumbres culturales “ineficientes” (el argumento de la compensación cultural). Proponemos que una respuesta más matizada al debate de congruencia versus compensación requiere la consideración conjunta de los contextos de liderazgo, cultura y tareas. Un metanálisis de 460 muestras de campo de liderazgo transformacional (N= 124.646) y 139 muestras de campo de liderazgo transaccional (N= 38.327) en 53 culturas reveló tres resultados clave: Primero, tanto el liderazgo transformacional como el transaccional se relacionan universalmente de manera positiva con los resultados de desempeño de los seguidores. . La fuerza de estas relaciones oscila entre 0.25 y 0.39 para el liderazgo transformacional y entre 0.12 y 0.24 para el liderazgo transaccional. En segundo lugar, los efectos positivos del liderazgo transformacional en los resultados de desempeño convergentes son más pronunciados en culturas caracterizadas por normas de diferenciación vertical (incluida una alta distancia jerárquica) y armonía (incluido el colectivismo), de acuerdo con la perspectiva de la congruencia cultural. En tercer lugar, los efectos positivos del liderazgo transaccional en los resultados de desempeño divergentes son más pronunciados en culturas caracterizadas por normas de bajo enfoque en el desempeño (incluida la baja aversión de la incertidumbre), en consonancia con la perspectiva de compensación cultural. Discutimos las implicaciones de estos hallazgos para la investigación y la práctica del liderazgo transformacional y transaccional.

Resumo

A literatura há muito reconhece o impacto de associações estereotipadas com o país de origem de um produto (COO) nas avaliações cognitivas dos consumidores sobre o produto. No entanto, as reações emocionais dos consumidores ao COO de um produto também podem influenciar suas decisões. Por exemplo, a literatura relata uma relação monotonicamente negativa entre a animosidade do consumidor (CA) e a compra de produtos de um país que evoca a animosidade. No entanto, a literatura fornece um quadro incompleto, já que desconsidera outros fatores que possam transformar essa relação negativa. Baseando-se em teorias da interação entre afeto e cognição na tomada de decisão, esta pesquisa investiga a sutil interação entre CA e imagem do país do produto (PCI). Usando amostras dos Estados Unidos, China, Japão e Coreia do Sul, descobrimos que o impacto monotonicamente negativo de CA se mantém apenas quando o PCI do país-alvo é desfavorável. Quando a PCI é favorável, encontramos uma relação em forma de U invertido entre CA e intenções de compra – ou seja, CA tem um efeito positivo na intenção de compra quando ela aumenta de níveis baixos a moderados e um efeito negativo quando sua magnitude aumenta além de um limite. Essas descobertas oferecem novos insights para abordar a complexidade de modos de entrada no mercado, segmentação, direcionamento, posicionamento e decisões de comunicação nos mercados internacionais.

摘要

先前的研究对于当领导力与典型的文化实践相匹配 (文化一致性论点) 或补偿“无效”文化实践 (文化补偿论点) 时它否更有效是模棱两可的。我们建议对一致性与补偿辩论的更细致的回答需要对领导力、文化和任务环境进行共同考虑。对 53 种文化中的 460 个变革型领导力 (N = 124,646) 和 139 个交易型领导力 (N = 38,327) 的现场样本进行的荟萃分析揭示了三个关键结果: 首先, 变革型和交易型领导力普遍与追随者的绩效结果呈正相关。这些关系的强度对变革型领导力介于 0.25 和 0.39 之间, 对交易型领导力则介于 0.12 和 0.24 之间。其次, 变革型领导力对趋同绩效结果的积极影响在以纵向差异 (包括高权力距离) 和和谐 (包括集体主义) 为特征的文化中更为明显, 这与文化一致性视角一致。第三, 交易型领导力对发散绩效结果的积极影响在以低绩效关注为特征的文化 (包括低不确定性规避) 为特征的文化中更为明显, 这与文化补偿的视角一致。我们讨论了这些发现对变革型和交易型领导力研究与实践的启示。

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the editor Ute Stephan and three anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful comments and guidance throughout the revision process. We acknowledge financial support from Shanghai Pujiang Talent Program Grant No. 21PJC007.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore

    Thomas Rockstuhl

  2. School of Management, Fudan University, 670 Guoshun Rd, Shanghai, 200433, China

    Dongyuan Wu

  3. School of Human Resources and Labor Relations, Michigan State University, 368 Farm Ln Room S403, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA

    James H. Dulebohn & Chenwei Liao

  4. Nazarian College of Business, California State University, Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff Street, Northridge, CA, 91330, USA

    Julia E. Hoch

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Correspondence to Dongyuan Wu.

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Accepted by Ute Stephan, Consulting Editor, 24 July 2022. This article has been with the authors for four revisions.

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Rockstuhl, T., Wu, D., Dulebohn, J.H. et al. Cultural congruence or compensation? A meta-analytic test of transformational and transactional leadership effects across cultures. J Int Bus Stud 54, 476–504 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-022-00559-x

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