Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evolution of Primate Social Systems

  • Published:
International Journal of Primatology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

We review evolutionary processes and mechanisms that gave rise to the diversity of primate social systems. We define social organization, social structure and mating system as distinct components of a social system. For each component, we summarize levels and patterns of variation among primates and discuss evolutionary determinants of this variation. We conclude that conclusive explanations for a solitary life and pair-living are still lacking. We then focus on interactions among the 3 components in order to identify main targets of selection and potential constraints for social evolution. Social organization and mating system are more closely linked to each other than either one is to social structure. Further, we conclude that it is important to seek a priori measures for the effects of presumed selective factors and that the genetic contribution to social systems is still poorly examined. Finally, we examine the role of primate socio-ecology in current evolutionary biology and conclude that primates are not prominently represented because the main questions asked in behavioral ecology are often irrelevant for primate behavior. For the future, we see a rapprochement of these areas as the role of disease and life-history theory are integrated more fully into primate socio-ecology.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Alberts, S., and Altmann, J. (1995a). Balancing costs and opportunities: Dispersal in male baboons. Am. Nat. 145: 279–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alberts, S., and Altmann, J. (1995b). Preparation and activation: Determinants of age at reproductive maturity in male baboons. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 36: 397–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, J. (1990). Primate males go where the females are. Anim. Behav. 39: 193–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, J., Alberts, S., Haines, S., Dubach, J., Muruthi, P., Coote, T., Geffen, E., Cheesman, D., Mututua, R., Saiyalel, S., Wayne, R., Lacy, R., and Bruford, M. (1997). Behavior predicts genetic structure in a wild primate group. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 5797–5801.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altmann, S. A. (1998). Foraging for Success, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andelman, S. J. (1986). Ecological and social determinants of cercopithecine mating patterns.In Rubenstein, D. I., and Wrangham, R.W. (eds.), Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution: Birds and Mammals, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, pp. 201–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. M. (1986). Predation and primate evolution. Primates 27: 15–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, T. Q., Sussman, R. W., and Cheverud, J. M. (1993). Infant killing in primates: A review of the observed cases with specific reference to the sexual selection hypothesis.Am. Anthropol. 95: 958–990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, R. A. (2000). Socioecology of baboons: The interface of male and female strategies. In Kappeler, P.M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 97–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, R. A., Byrne, R., and Whiten, A. (1996). Ecology, feeding competition and social structure in baboons. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 38: 321–329.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bearder, S. K. (1987). Lorises, bushbabies, and tarsiers: Diverse societies in solitary foragers.In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 11–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bearder, S. K. (1999). Physical and social diversity among nocturnal primates: A new view based on long term research. Primates 40: 267–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bercovitch, F. B. (1989). Body size, sperm competition, and determinants of reproductive success in male savanna baboons. Evolution 43: 1507–1521.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bercovitch, F. B. (1991). Social stratification, social strategies, and reproductive success in primates.Ethol. Sociobiol. 12: 315–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J. (1996). Animal behaviour and plundered mammals: Is the study of mating systems a scientific luxury or a conservation necessity. Oikos 77: 207–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boinski, S., and Chapman, C. (1995). Predation on primates: Where are we and what's next? Evol. Anthropol. 4: 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boinski, S., and Garber, P. (2000). On the Move, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borries, C. (2000). Male dispersal and mating season influxes in hanuman langurs living in multi-male groups. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 146–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockman, D., and Whitten, P. (1996). Reproduction in free-ranging Propithecus verreauxi: Estrus and the relationship between multiple partner matings and fertilizations. Am. J.Phys. Anthropol. 100: 57–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brotherton, P., Pemberton, J., Komers, P., and Malarky, G. (1997). Genetic and behavioral evidence of monogamy in a mammals, Kirk's dik-dil (Madoqua kirkii). Proc. Roy. Soc.Lond. B 264: 675–681.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castles, D., Aureli, F., and DeWaal, F. (1996).Variation in concilatory tendency and relationship quality across groups of pigtail macaques. Anim. Behav. 52: 389–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapais, B., Gauthier, C., Prud'homme, J., and Vasey, P. (1997). Relatedness threshold for nepotism in Japanese macaques. Anim. Behav. 53: 1089–1101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles-Dominique, P. (1977). Ecology and Behaviour of Nocturnal Primates, Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles-Dominique, P. (1978). Solitary and gregarious prosimians: Evolution of social structure in primates. In Chivers, D. J., and Joysey, K. A. (eds.), Recent Advances in Primatology, Vol. 3, Academic Press, London, pp. 139–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles-Dominique, P. (1995). Food distribution and reproductive constraints in the evolution of social structure: Nocturnal primates and other mammals. In Alterman, L., Doyle, G., and Izard, M. (eds.), Creatures of the Dark, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 425–438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charles-Dominique, P., and Petter, J. J. (1980). Ecology and social life of Phaner furcifer. In Charles-Dominique, P., Cooper, H. M., Hladik, A., Hladik, C. M., Pages, E., Pariente, G. F., Petter-Rousseaux, A., Petter, J.-J., and Schilling, A. (eds.), Nocturnal Malagasy Primates, Academic Press, New York, pp. 75–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheney, D. L., and Wrangham, R.W. (1987). Predation. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 227–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A. B. (1985). Sociality in a nocturnal “solitary” prosimian: Galago crassicaudatus. Int. J.Primatol. 6: 581–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1974). Primate social organization and ecology. Nature 250: 539–542.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1989a). Mammalian mating systems. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 236: 339–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1989b). Female transfer and inbreeding avoidance in social mammals.Nature 337: 70–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1991). The Evolution of Parental Care, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Harvey, P.H. (1977). Primate ecology and social organization. J. Zool.Lond. 183: 1–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., Harvey, P. H., and Rudder, B. (1977). Sexual dimorphism, socionomic sex ratio and body weight in primates. Nature 269: 797–800.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Parker, G. A. (1992). Potential reproductive rates and the operation of sexual selection. Q. Rev. Biol. 67: 437–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H., and Parker, G. A. (1995). Sexual coercion in animal societies. Anim.Behav. 49: 1345–1365.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colmenares, F. (1992). Clans and harems in a colony of hamadryas and hybrid baboons: Male kinship, familiarity and the formation of brother teams. Behaviour 121: 61–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cords, M. (1988). Mating systems of forest guenons: A preliminary review. In Gauthier-Hion, A., Bourliè re, F., Gauthier, J.-P., and Kingdon, J. (eds.), A primate radiation: Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 323–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cords, M. (2000). The number of males in guenon groups. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 84–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowlishaw, G., and Dunbar, R. (1991). Dominance rank and mating success in male primates.Anim. Behav. 41: 1045–1056.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crockett, C., and Janson, C. H. (2000). Infanticide in red howlers: Female group size, male membership, and a possible link to folivory. In van Schaik, C. P., and Janson, C. H. (eds.), Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 75–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crook, J. H. (1970). The socio-ecology of primates. In Crook, J. H. (ed.), Social Behavior in Birds and Mammals, Academic Press, London, pp. 103–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crook, J. H., and Gartlan, J. C. (1966). Evolution of primate societies. Nature 210: 1200–1203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dagg, A. (1999). Infanticide by male lions hypothesis:Afallacy influencing research into human behavior. Am. Anthropol. 100: 940–950.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, C. R., Ayres, J. M., Dye, C., and Deane, L.M. (1991). Malaria infection rate of Amazonian primates increases with body weight and group size. Funct. Ecol. 5: 655–662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, N. B. (1991). Mating systems. In Krebs, J. R., and Davies, N. B. (eds.), Behavioural Ecology, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 263–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ruiter, J.R. (1986). The influence of group size on predator scanning and foraging behaviour of wedgecapped capuchin monkeys (Cebus olivaceus). Behaviour 98: 240–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Ruiter, J. R., and Geffen, E. (1998). Relatedness of matrilines, dispersing males and social groups in long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 265: 79–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Waal, F. B. M. (1986). The integration of dominance and social bonding in primates. Quart.Rev. Biol. 61: 459–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Waal, F. B. M. (1989). Dominance ‘style’ and primate social organization. In Standen, V., and Foley, R. A. (eds.), Comparative Socioecology, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 243–263.

  • de Waal, F. B. M., and Johanowicz, D. (1993). Modification of reconciliation behavior through social experience: An experiment with two macaque species. Child Dev. 64: 897–908.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Waal, F. B. M., and Luttrell, L. M. (1989). Toward a comparative socioecology of the genus Macaca: Different dominance styles in rhesus and stumptail monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 19: 83–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • di Fiore, A., and Rendall, D. (1994). Evolution of social organization:Areappraisal for primates by using phylogenetic methods. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 9941–9945.

    Google Scholar 

  • Digby, L. (1999). Sexual behavior and extragroup copulations in a wild population of common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Fol. Primatol. 70: 136–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, A. F. (1998). Primate Sexuality, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobson, A. P., and Lyles, A. M. (1989). The population dynamics and conservation of primate populations. Conserv. Biol. 3: 362–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R. I. M. (1988). Primate Social Systems, Cornell University Press, Ithaca.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R. I. M. (1992). Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates. J. Human Evol. 20: 469–493.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R. (1995a).The mating system of callitrichid primates: I. Conditions for the coevolution of pair bonding and twinning. Anim. Behav. 50: 1057–1070.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R. I. M. (1995b). Neocortex size and group size in primates: A test of the hypothesis. J. Human Evol. 28: 287–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evol. Anthropol. 6: 178–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R. I.M. (2000). Male mating strategies:Amodeling approach. In Kappeler, P.M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 259–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J. F., Muckenhirn, N. A., and Rudran, R. (1972). The relation between ecology and social structure in primates. Science 176: 863–874.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elgar, M. (1986). House sparrows establish foraging flocks by giving chirrup calls if the resources are divisible. Anim. Behav. 34: 169–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen, S. T. (1994). Benefits, constraints and the evolution of the family. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9: 282–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen, S. T., and Oring, L. W. (1977). Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems. Science 197: 215–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fietz, J. (1999). Monogamy as a rule rather than exception in nocturnal lemurs: The case of the fat-tailed dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus medius. Ethology 105: 259–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fietz, J., Zischler, H., Schwiegk, C., Tomiuk, J., Dausmann, K., and Ganzhorn, J.U. (2000). High rates of extra-pair young in the pair-living fat-tailed dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus medius.Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 49: 8–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeland, W. J. (1976). Pathogens and the evolution of primate sociality. Biotropica 8: 12–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • French, J., Schaffner, C., Shepard, R., and Miller, M. (1995).Familiarity with intruders modulates agonism towards outgroup conspecifics in Wied's Black-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix kuhli: Primates, Callithrichidae). Ethology 99: 24–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuentes, A. (1999). Re-evaluating primate monogamy. Am. Anthropol. 100: 890–907.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuentes, A. (2000). Hylobatid communities: Changing views on pair bonding and social organization in Hominoids. Yearbk. Phys. Anthropol. 43: 33–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganzhorn, J. U. (1987). A possible role of plantations for primate conservation in Madagascar.Am. J. Primatol. 12: 205–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garber, P. A. (1997). One for all and breeding for one: Cooperation and competition as a Tamarin reproductive strategy. Evol. Anthropol. 5: 187–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerald, M. S. (2001). Primate colour predicts social status and aggressive outcome. Anim. Behav. 61: 559–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerloff, U., Hartung, B., Fruth, B., Hohmann, G., and Tautz, D. (1999). Intracommunity relationships, dispersal pattern and paternity success in a wild living community of bonobos (Pan paniscus) determined from DNA analysis of faecal samples. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 266: 1189–1195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, R., and Langen, T. (1996). How do animals choose their mates? Trend Ecol. Evol. 11: 468–470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L., and Luh, H. K. (1992). On comparing comparative methods. Ann. Rev. Ecol.Syst. 23: 383–404.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldizen, A. W. (1987a). Facultative polyandry and the role of infant-carrying in wild saddleback tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 20: 99–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldizen, A. W. (1987b). Tamarins and marmosets: Communal care of offspring. In Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R.W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 34–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldizen, A. W., and Terborgh, J. (1989). Demography and dispersal patterns of a tamarin population: Possible causes of delayed breeding. Am. Nat. 134: 208–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. M., O'Connor, S., and Langrand, O. (1993). A review of predation on lemurs: Implications for the evolution of social behavior in small, nocturnal primates. In Kappeler, P. M., and Ganzhorn, J.U. (eds.), Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 51–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gore, M. (1993). Effects of food distribution onforaging competition in rhesus monkeys, Macaca mulatta, and hamadryas baboons, Papio hamadryas. Anim. Behav. 45: 773–786.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goss-Custard, J., Dunbar, R., and Aldrich-Blake, F. (1972). Survival, mating, and rearing in the evolution of primate social structure. Folia Primatol. 17: 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groves, C. (2000). The genus Cheirogaleus: Unrecognized biodiversity in dwarf lemurs. Int. J.Primatol. 21: 943–962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. (1998). Conservation status of the spectral tarsier Tarsius spectrum: Population density and home range size. Folia Primatol. 69: 191–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. (2000a). Sociality in the spectral tarsier, Tarsius spectrum. Am. J. Primatol. 51: 89–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gursky, S. (2000b). The effects of seasonality on the behavior of an insectivorous primate. Int.J. Primatol. 21: 477–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W., and Bulger, J. (1992). Facultative expression of behavioral differences between one-male and multimale savanna baboon groups. Am. J. Primatol. 28: 61–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt, A. H. (1997). Sperm competition in primates. Am. Nat. 149: 189–194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt, A. H. (1998). Does primate socioecology need nonprimate socioecology? Evol. Anthropol. 7: 3–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt, C. S., and Nash, L. T. (1986). Social organization of galagos in Kenyan coastal forest: I. Galago zanzibaricus. Am. J. Primatol. 10: 339–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, M. L., and Tardif, S.D. (1989). Species differences in response to conspecific intruders in Callithrix jacchus and Saguinus oedipus. Int. J. Primatol. 10, 343–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, P. H., Kavanaugh, M., and Clutton-Brock, T. H. (1978). Sexual dimorphism in primate teeth. J. Zool. Lond. 186: 475–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, P. H., and Pagel, M. (1991). The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauser, M. (1993). Primatology: Some lessons from and for related disciplines. Evol. Anthropol. 2: 182–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hemelrijk, C. K., and Ek, A. (1991). Reciprocity and interchange of grooming and ‘support’ in captive chimpanzees. Anim. Behav. 41: 923–935.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henzi, S., Lycett, J., and Piper, S. (1997). Fission and troop size in a mountain baboon population.Anim. Behav. 53: 525–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heymann, E. W. (1999). Primate behavioural ecology and diseases—some perspectives for a future primatology. Prim. Rep. 55: 53–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heymann, E. W. (2000). The number of males in callitrichine groups and its implications for callitrichine social evolution. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 64–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, R. A., and Dunbar, R. I.M. (1998a). An evaluation of the roles of predation rate and predation risk as selective pressures on primate grouping behaviour. Behaviour 135: 411–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, R. A., and Lee, P. C. (1998). Predation risk as an influence on group size in cercopithecoid primates: Implications for social structure. J. Zool. Lond. 245: 447–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinde, R. A. (1976). Interactions, relationships and social structure. Man 11: 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrdy, S. B. (1979). Infanticide among animals: A review, classification, and examination of the implications for the reproductive strategies of females. Ethol. Sociobiol. 1: 13–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isbell, L. A., and Van Vuren, D. (1996). Differential costs of locational and social dispersal and their consequences for female group-living primates. Behaviour 133: 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H. (1986). The mating system as a determinant of social evolution in capuchin monkeys (Cebus). In Else, J., and Lee, P. C. (eds.), Proceedings of the Xth International Congress of Primatology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 169–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H. (1988). Intra-specific food competition and primate social structure: A synthesis.Behaviour 105: 1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H. (1998). Testing the predation hypothesis for vertebrate sociality: Prospects and pitfalls. Behaviour 135: 389–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H. (2000). Primate socio-ecology: The end of a golden age. Evol. Anthropol. 9: 73–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H. (2003). Puzzles, predation, and primates: Using life history to understand selection pressures. In Kappeler, P. M., and Pereira, M. E. (eds.), Primate Life Histories and Socioecology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H., and Goldsmith, M. (1995). Predicting group size in primates: Foraging costs and predation risks. Behav. Ecol. 6: 326–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janson, C. H., and van Schaik, C. P. (1993). Ecological risk aversion in juvenile primates: Slow and steady wins the race. In Pereira, M. E., and Fairbanks, L. A. (eds.), Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 57–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jernvall, J., and Wright, P. C. (1998). Diversity components of impending primate extinctions.Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 95: 11279–11283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, R. A. (1995). Sexual selection, honest advertisement and the handicap principle: Reviewing the evidence. Biol. Rev. 70: 1–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, R. A. (2000). Models of reproductive skew: A review and synthesis. Ethology 106: 5–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, R. A., Woodroffe, R., Cant, M., and Wright, J. (1999). Reproductive skew in multimember groups. Am. Nat. 153: 315–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolly, A. (1966). Lemur Behavior, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jolly, A. (1998). Pair-bonding, female aggression and the evolution of lemur societies. Folia Primatol. 69: 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1993a). Sexual selection and lemur social systems. In Kappeler, P. M., and Ganzhorn, J. U. (eds.), Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 223–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1993b). Female dominance in primates and other mammals. In Bateson, P. P.G., Klopfer, P. H., and Thompson, N. S. (eds.), Perspectives in Ethology, Vol. 10: Behaviour and Evolution, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 143–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1993c). Variation in social structure: The effects of sex and kinship on social interactions in three lemur species. Ethology 93: 125–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1997a). Determinants of primate social organization: Comparative evidence and new insights from Malagasy lemurs. Biol. Rev. 72: 111–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1997b). Intrasexual selection in Mirza coquereli: Evidence for scramble competition polygyny in a solitary primate. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 41: 115–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1999a). Primate socioecology: New insights from males. Naturwissenschaften 86: 18–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (1999b). Lemur social structure and convergence in primate socioecology. In Lee, P. (Ed.), Comparative Primate Socioecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 273–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P.M. (1999c). Convergence and nonconvergence in primate social systems. In Fleagle, J. G., Janson, C. H., and Reed, K. A. (eds.), Primate Communities, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 158–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M. (2000a). Primate males: History and theory. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 3–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. (2000b). Causes and consequences of unusual sex ratiosamonglemurs. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 55–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M., and Heymann, E.W. (1996). Nonconvergence in the evolution of primate life history and socio-ecology. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 59: 297–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M., van Schaik, C. P., and Pereira, M. E. (2003). Primate socioecology and life history. In Kappeler, P. M., and Pereira, M. E. (eds.), Primate Socioecology and Life History, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kappeler, P. M.,Wimmer, B., Zinner,D. P., and Tautz, D. (submitted). Hidden matrilineal group structure of a solitary lemur: Implications for primate social evolution.

  • Kay, R. F., Plavcan, J. M., Glander, K. E., and Wright, P. C. (1988). Sexual selection and canine dimorphism in NewWorld monkeys. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 77: 385–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinzey, W.G., and Cunningham, E. P. (1994).Variability in platyrrhine social organization. Am.J. Primatol. 34: 185–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, A. (1998). Visual scanning by common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus): Functional aspects and the special role of adult males. Primates 39: 85–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, A. (2002). Competition for resources and its behavioral consequences among female primates. Int. J. Primatol. 23(4): 783–817.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, A., Beise, J., Chalise, M., and Ganzhorn, J. (1998). When females should contest for food—Testing hypotheses about resource density, distribution, size, and quality with Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 42: 225–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Komers, P. (1996). Obligate monogamy without parental care in Kirk's dikdik. Anim. Behav. 51: 131–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs, J. R., and Davies, N. B. (1992). Behavioural Ecology, Sinauer, Sunderland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kummer, H. (1968). Social Organization of Hamadryas Baboons, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kvarnemo, C., and Ahnesjö, I. (1996). The dynamics of operational sex ratios and competition for mates. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11: 404–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lack, D. (1947). The significance of clutch size. Ibis89: 302–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Launhardt, K., Borries, C., Hardt, C., Epplen, J., and Winkler, P. (2001). Paternity analysis of alternative reproductive routes among the langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) of Ramnagar.Anim. Behav. 61: 53–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lott, D. F. (1991). Intraspecific Variation in the Social Systems of Wild Vertebrates, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacKinnon, J., and MacKinnon, K. (1980).The behavior of wild spectral tarsiers. Int. J. Primatol. 1: 361–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mangel, M. (1990). Resource divisibility, predation and group formation. Anim. Behav. 39: 1163–1172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T. (1995). Fluctuating asymmetry and body weight in men and woman: Implications for sexual selection. Ethol. Sociobiol. 16: 145–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., and Chamberlain, A. T. (1993). Fluctuating asymmetry, sexual selection and canine teeth in primates. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 251: 83–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manson, J. H. (1994). Male aggression: A cost of female mate choice in Cayo Santiago rhesus macaques. Anim. Behav. 48: 473–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manson, J. H. (1995). Female mate choice in primates. Evol. Anthropol. 3: 192–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, R.D. (1972).Apreliminary field-study of the lesser mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus J.F. Miller 1777). Z. Tierpsychol. Suppl. 9: 43–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrew, W., Marchant, L., and Nishida, T. (1996). Great Ape Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick, D., and Hoelzer, G. (1992). Differences in male and female macaque dispersal lead to contrasting distributions of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA variation. Int. J. Primatol. 13: 379–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melnick, D., Pearl, M., and Richard, A. (1984). Male migration and inbreeding avoidance in wild rhesus monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 7: 229–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mendoza, S. P., and Mason, W. A. (1986). Contrasting responses to intruders and to involuntary separation by monogamous and polygynous NewWorld monkeys. Physiol. Behav. 38: 795–801.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitani, J. C., Gros-Louis, J., and Manson, J. H. (1996a). Number of males in primate groups: Comparative tests of competing hypotheses. Am. J. Primatol. 38: 315–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitani, J., Gros-Louis, J., and Richards, A. (1996b). Sexual dimorphism, the operational sex ratio, and the intensity of male competition in polygynous primates. Am. Nat. 147: 966–980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, C. L., Boinski, S., and Schaik, C. P.V. (1991). Competitive regimes and female bonding in two species of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedi and S. sciureus). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 28: 55–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mø ller, A. P. (1997). Immune defence, extra-pair paternity, and sexual selection in birds. Proc.Roy. Soc. Lond. B 264: 561–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J. (1984). Female transfer in primates. Int. J. Primatol. 5: 537–589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J. (1992). Dispersal, nepotism, and primate social behavior. Int. J. Primatol. 13: 361–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, J., and Ali, R. (1984). Are dispersal and inbreeding avoidance related? Anim. Behav. 32: 94–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morland, H. S. (1990). Parental behavior and infant development in ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) in a northeast Madagascar rainforest. Am. J. Primatol. 20: 253–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller, A. E. (1998). A premliminary report on the social organisation of Cheirogaleus medius (Cheirogaleidae; Primates) in North-West Madagascar. Folia Primatol. 69: 160–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller, A. E., and Thalmann, U. (2000). Origin and evolution of primate social organisation: A reconstruction. Biol. Rev. 75: 405–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myers, N., Mittermeier, R., Mittermeier, C., da Fonseca, G., and Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853–858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagel, U. (1973). A comparison of anubis baboons, hamadryas baboons and their hybrids at a species border in Ethiopia. Folia Primatol. 19: 104–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nishida, T., and Hiraiwa-Hasegawa, M. (1987). Chimpanzees and bonobos: Cooperative relationships among males. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R.W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 165–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noë , R., and Hammerstein, P. (1994a). Biological markets: Supply and demand determine the effect of partner choice in cooperation, mutualism and mating. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 35: 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noë , R., and Hammerstein, P. (1994b). Biological markets. Trends Ecol. Evol. 10: 336–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noë , R., and Sluijter, A. A. (1990). Reproductive tactics of male savanna baboons. Behaviour 113: 117–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L. (1999a). The number of males in primate social groups: A comparative test of the socioecological model. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 46: 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L. (1999b). The evolution of exaggerated sexual swellings in primates and the gradedsignal hypothesis. Anim. Behav. 58: 229–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L., and Barton, R. A. (2000). Allometric slopes and independent contrasts: A comparative test of Kleiber's law in primate ranging patterns. Am. Nat. 156: 519–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L., and Barton, R. A. (2001). Comparative methods for studying primate adaptation and allometry. Evol. Anthropol. 10: 81–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L., and van Schaik, C. P. (2001). Reconstructing the behavioral ecology of extinct primates. In Plavcan, J. M., Kay, R. F., Jungers, W. L., and van Schaik, C. P. (eds.), Reconstructing Behavior in the Fossil Record, Plenum Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunn, C. L., Gittleman, J., and Antonovics, J. (2000). Promiscuity and the primate immune system. Science 290: 1168–1170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer, C. (1985). Dispersal and inbreeding avoidance. Anim. Behav. 33: 676–678.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palombit, R. A. (1994). Extra-pair copulations in a monogamous ape. Anim. Behav. 47: 721–723.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palombit, R. A. (1999). Infanticide and the evolution of pair bonds in nonhuman primates. Evol. Anthropol. 7: 117–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palombit, R. A. (2000). Infanticide and the evolution of male- female bonds in animals. In van Schaik, C. P., and Janson, C. H. (eds.), Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 239–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palombit, R. A., Seyfarth, R. M., and Cheney, D. L. (1997). The adaptive value of ‘friendships’ to female baboons: Experimental and observational evidence. Anim. Behav. 54: 599–614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, A. (1997). Breeding seasonality affects the association between dominance and reproductive success in non-human male primates. Folia Primatol. 68: 344–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, A. (2002). Sexual selection and mate choice. Int. J. Primatol. 23(4): 877–904.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, A., Kuester, J., Timme, A., and Arnemann, J. (1993).The association between rank, mating effort, and reproductive success in male barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus). Primates 34: 491–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, A., Preuschoft, S., and van Schaik, C. P. (2000). The other side of the coin: Infanticide and the evolution of affiliative male- infant interactions in Old World primates. In van Schaik, C. P., and Janson, C. H. (eds.), Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 269–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E. (1995). Development and social dominance among group-living primates. Am.J. Primatol. 37: 143–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E., and Fairbanks, L. A. (1993). Juvenile Primates: Life History, Development, and Behavior, Oxford University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M.E., and Kappeler, P.M. (1997). Divergent systems of agonistic relationship in lemurid primates. Behaviour 134: 225–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E., Klepper, A., and Simons, E. L. (1987). Tactics of care for young infants by forestliving ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata): Ground nests, parking, and biparental guarding. Am. J. Primatol. 13: 129–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E., and Leigh, S. R. (2003). Modes of primate development. In Kappeler, P. M., and Pereira, M. E. (eds.), Primate Life Histories and Socioecology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E., and McGlynn, C. (1997). Special relationships instead of female dominance for redfronted lemurs, Eulemur fulvus rufus. Am. J. Primatol. 43: 239–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pereira, M. E., and Weiss, M. L. (1991). Female mate choice, male migration, and the threat of infanticide in ringtailed lemurs. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 28: 141–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plavcan, J. M., and van Schaik, C. P. (1992). Intrasexual competition and canine dimorphism in primates. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 87: 461–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, T. R. (1992). The influence of dispersal patterns and mating system on genetic differentiation within and between populations of the red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus).Evolution 46: 1112–1128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, T. R. (1998). Effects of demographic change on group kin structure and gene dynamics of populations of red howling monkeys. J. Mammal. 79: 692–712.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, T. R. (2000a). The evolution of male philopatry in Neotropical monkeys. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 219–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, T. R. (2000b). Reproductive success increases with degree of kinship in cooperative coaltions of female red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 48: 253–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft, S., and Paul, A. (2000). Dominance, egalitarianism, and stalemate:Anexperimental approach to male- male competition in Barbary macaques. In Kappeler, P.M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge Uiversity Press, Cambridge, pp. 205–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preuschoft, S., and van Schaik, C.P. (2001). Evolutionary dynamics of variation in cercopithecine dominance styles. Paper Presented at XVIIIth Congress of IPS, Adelaide, Jan. 2001.

  • Purvis, A. (1995). A composite estimate of primate phylogeny. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 348: 405–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pusey, A. E., and Packer, C. (1987). Dispersal and philopatry. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R.W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, Chicago University Press, Chicago, pp. 250–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radespiel, U. (2000). Sociality in the gray mouse lemur (Microcebus murinus) in Northwestern Madagascar. Am. J. Primatol. 51: 21–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasoloarison, R. M., Goodman, S. M., and Ganzhorn, J. U. (2000). A taxonomic revision of mouse lemurs (Microcebus) occurring in the western portions of Madagascar. Int. J. Primatol. 21: 963–1019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasoloarison, R. M., Rasolonandrasana, B., Ganzhorn, J. U., and Goodman, S. M. (1995).Predation on vertebrates in the Kirindy forest,Western Madagascar. Ecotropica 1: 59–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasoloharijaona, S., Rakotosamimanana, B., and Zimmermann, E. (2000). Infanticide by a male Milne-Edwards' sportive lemur (Lepilemur edwardsi) in Ampijoroa,NW-Madagascar. Int.J. Primatol. 21: 41–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reichard, U. (1995). Extra-pair copulations in a monogamous gibbon (Hylobates lar). Ethology 100: 99–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1978). Behavioral Variation: Case Study of a Malagasy Lemur, Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1985). Social boundaries in a Malagasy prosimian, the sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi). Int. J. Primatol. 6: 553–568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richard, A. F. (1987). Malagasy prosimians: Female dominance. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R.W., and Struhsaker, T.T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 25–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridley, M. (1986). The number of males in a primate troop. Anim. Behav. 34: 1848–1858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rigamonti, M. M. (1993). Home range and diet in red ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata rubra) on the Masoala peninsula, Madagascar. In Kappeler, P. M., and Ganzhorn, J. U. (eds.), Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 25–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, M. M. (1995). A demographic analysis of male life history and social structure of mountain gorillas. Behaviour 132: 21–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, J.G., Wright, P.C., and Kinzey, W.G. (1987). Monogamous cebids and their relatives: Intergroup calls and spacing. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R.W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 44–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodman, P. (1993). The human origins program and evolutionary ecology in anthropology today. Evol. Anthropol. 2: 215–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowell, T. E. (1979).Howwouldweknowif social organization were not adaptive? In Bernstein, I. S., and Smith, E.O. (eds.), Primate Ecology and Social Organization, Garland, NewYork, pp. 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowell, T. E. (1988). The social systems of guenons, compared with baboons, macaques and mangabeys: A preliminary review. In Gauthier-Hion, A., Bourliè re, F., Gauthier, J.-P., and Kingdon, J. (eds.), A Primate Radiation: Evolutionary Biology of the African Guenons, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 439–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowell, T. E. (1993). Reification of social systems. Evol. Anthropol. 2: 135–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutberg, A. T. (1983). The evolution of monogamy in primates. J. Theoret. Biol. 104: 93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sauther, M. L. (1991). Reproductive behavior of free-ranging Lemur catta at Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve, Madagascar. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 84: 463–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmid, J. (1998). Tree holes used for resting by gray mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus) in Madagascar: Insulation capacities and energetic consequences. Int. J. Primatol. 19: 797–809.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schülke, O. (2003). The forkmarked lemur, Phaner furcifer. In Goodman, S. M., and Benstead, J. (eds.), Natural history of Madagascar, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Setchell, J. M., and Dixson, A. F. (2001a). Changes in the secondary sexual adornments of male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) are associated with gain and loss of alpha status. Horm.Behav. 39: 177–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Setchell, J. M., and Dixson, A. F. (2001b). Cirannual changes in the secondary sexual ornaments of semifree-ranging male and female mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). Am. J. Primatol. 53: 109–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sicotte, P. (1994). Effect of male competition on male- female relationships in bi-male groups of mountain gorillas. Ethology 97: 47–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silk, J. B. (2002). Kin selection in Primate Groups. International Journal of Primatology 23: 848–876.

    Google Scholar 

  • Small, M. F. (1989). Female choice in nonhuman primates. Ybk. Phys. Anthropol. 32: 103–127.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts, B. B. (1985). Sex and Friendship in Baboons, Aldine, Hawthorne.

  • Smuts, B. B. (1987). Gender, aggression, and influence. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 400–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts, B. B., and Smuts, R. W. (1993). Male aggression and sexual coercion of females in nonhumanprimates and other mammals: Evidence and theoretical implications.Adv. Study Behav. 22: 1–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommer, V., and Reichard, U. (2000). Rethinking monogamy: The gibbon case. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge, pp. 159–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava, A., and Dunbar, R. I.M. (1996). The mating system of Hanuman langurs:Aproblem in optimal foraging. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 39: 219–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stammbach, E. (1987). Desert, forest and montane baboons: Multi-level societies. In Smuts, B.B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R.W., and Struhsaker, T.T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 112–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanford, C. B. (2002). Avoiding predators: Expectations and evidence in primate antipredator behavior. Int. J. Primatol. 23(4): 741–756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steenbeek, R., Sterck, E. H. M., de Vries, H., and van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (2000). Costs and benefits of the one-male, age-graded and all-male phases in wildThomas's langur groups. In Kappeler, P.M. (ed.), Primate Males, University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge, pp. 130–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steenbeek, R., and van Schaik, C. P. (2001). Competition and group size in Thomas's langur (Presbytis thomasi): The folivore paradox revisited. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 49: 100–110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterck, E. H. M. (1998). Female dispersal, social organization, and infanticide in langurs: Are they linked to human disturbance? Am. J. Primatol. 44: 235–254.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterck, E. H. M. (1999).Variation in langur social organization in relation to the socioecological model, human habitat alteration, and phylogenetic constraints. Primates 40: 199–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterck, E. H. M., Watts, D. P., and van Schaik, C. P. (1997). The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 41: 291–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, E., Nguyen, N., and Fashing, P. (2000). Spatial patterning in nocturnal prosimians: A review of methods and relevance to studies of sociality. Am. J. Primatol. 51: 3–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterling, E., and Richard, A. (1995). Social organization in the aye-aye (Daubentonia madagascariensis) and the perceived distinctiveness of nocturnal primates. In Alterman, L., Doyle, G., and Izard, M. (eds.), Creatures of the Dark, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 439–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strier, K. B. (1992). Atelinae adaptations: Behavioral strategies and ecological constraints. Am.J. Phys. Anthropol. 88: 515–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strier, K. B. (1994). Myth of the typical primate. Ybk. Phys. Anthropol. 37: 233–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strier, K. B. (1996). Male reproductive strategies in NewWorld primates. Hum. Nat. 7: 105–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strier, K. B. (2000a). Primate Behavioral Ecology, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strier, K. B. (2000b). From binding brotherhoods to short-term sovereignty: The dilemma of male Cebidae. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 72–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strier, K. B., and Ziegler, T. (2000). Lack of pubertal influences on female dispersal in muriqui monkeys, Brachyteles arachnoides. Anim. Behav. 59: 849–860.

    Google Scholar 

  • Struhsaker, T. T. (1969). Correlates of ecology and social organization among African cercopithecines.Folia Primatol. 11: 80–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Struhsaker, T.T. (2000).Variation in adult sex ratios of red colobus monkey social groups: Implications for interspecific comparisons. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 108–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugawara, K. (1988). Ethological study of the social behavior of hybrid baboons between Papio anubis and P. hamadryas in free-ranging groups. Primates 29: 429–448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, R. W. (1999). Primate Ecology and Social Structure, Vol. 1: Lorises, Lemurs and Tarsiers, Pearson Custom Publishing, Needham Heights, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, R.W., Cheverud, J., and Bartlett, T. (1995). Infant killing as an evolutionary strategy: Reality or myth? Evol. Anthropol. 4: 149–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahata, Y. (1982). Social relations between adult males and females of Japanese monkeys in the Arashiyama B troop. Primates 23: 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tardif, S., and Garber, P. (1994). Social and reproductive patterns in neotropical primates: Relation to ecology, body size, and infant care. Am. J. Primatol. 34: 111–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh, J., and Janson, C. H. (1986). The socioecology of primate groups. Ann. Rev. Ecol.System. 17: 111–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thalmann, U. (2001). Food resource characteristics in two nocturnal lemurs with different social behavior: Avahi occidentalis and Lepilemur edwardsi. Int. J. Primatol. 22: 287–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., Gangestad, S., and Comer, R. (1995). Human female orgasm and mate fluctuating asymmetry. Anim. Behav. 50: 1601–1615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilson, R. L. (1986). Primate mating systems and their consequences for captive management.In Benirschke, K. (ed.), Primates—The Road to Self-Sustaining Populations, Springer, New York, pp. 361–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M. (2000). Relationships among non-human primate males: A deductive framework. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 193–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff, J.A.R.A. M., and van Schaik, C. P. (1992). Cooperation in competition: The ecology of primate bonds. In Harcourt, A. H., and deWaal, F. B. M. (eds.), Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 357–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff, J. A. R. A. M., and van Schaik, C. P. (1994). Male bonds: Affilliative relationships among nonhuman primate males. Behaviour 130: 309–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Noordwijk, M. A., and van Schaik, C. P. (1988). Male careers in Sumatran long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Behaviour 107: 24–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Noordwijk, M. A., and van Schaik, C. P. (2000). Reproductive patterns in eutherian mammals: Adaptations against infanticide? In van Schaik, C. P., and Janson, C. H. (eds.), Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 322–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P. (1983).Why are diurnal primates living in groups? Behaviour 87: 120–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P. (1989). The ecology of social relationships amongst female primates. In Standen, V., and Foley, R.A. (eds.), Comparative Socioecology, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 195–218.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P. (1996). Social evolution in primates: The role of ecological factors and male behaviour. Proc. Brit. Acad. 88: 9–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P. (1999). The socioecology of fission-fusion sociality in orangutans. Primates 40: 69–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C.P. (2000a). Infanticide by male primates:The sexual selection hypothesis revisited.In van Schaik, C. P., and Janson, C. H. (eds.), Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 27–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P. (2000b). Vulnerability to infanticide by males: Patterns among mammals.In van Schaik, C. P., and Janson, C. H. (eds.), Infanticide by Males and Its Implications, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 61–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and Dunbar, R. I. M. (1990). The evolution of monogamy in large primates: A new hypothesis and some crucial tests. Behaviour 115: 30–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and Hörstermann, M. (1994). Predation risk and the number of adult males in a primate group: A comparative test. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 35: 261–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and Kappeler, P. M. (1993). Life history, activity period and lemur social systems. In Kappeler, P. M., and Ganzhorn, J. U. (eds.), Lemur Social Systems and Their Ecological Basis, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 241–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and Kappeler, P. M. (1996). The social systems of gregarious lemurs: Lack of convergence with anthropoids due to evolutionary disequilibrium? Ethology 102: 915–941.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and Kappeler, P.M. (1997). Infanticide risk and the evolution of male- female association in primates. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 264: 1687–1694.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and Paul, A. (1996). Male care in primates: Does it ever reflect paternity? Evol. Anthropol. 5: 152–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., and van Hooff, J. A. R. A.M. (1983). On the ultimate causes of primate social systems. Behaviour 85: 91–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Schaik, C. P., van Noordwijk, M. A., and Nunn, C. L. (1999). Sex and social evolution in primates. In Lee, P. C. (ed.), Comparative Primate Socio-ecology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 204–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vehrencamp, S. L. (1983). A model for the evolution of despotic versus egalitarian societies.Anim. Behav. 31: 667–682.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vick, L.G., and Pereira, M. E. (1989). Episodic targeting aggression and the histories of Lemur social groups. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 25: 3–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waser, P., and Jones, W. (1983). Natal philopatry among solitary mammals. Q. Rev. Biol. 58: 355–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, P. J., and Thornhill, R. (1994). Fluctuating asymmetry and sexual selection. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9: 21–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, D. P. (1992). Social relationships of immigrant and resident female mountain gorillas. I.Male- female relationships. Am. J. Primatol. 28: 159–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, D. P. (1998). Coalitionary mate guarding by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 44: 43–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, D. P. (2000). Causes and consequences of variation in male mountain gorilla life histories and group membership. In Kappeler, P. M. (ed.), Primate Males, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 169–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weingrill, T. (2000). Infanticide and the value of male- female relationships in mountain Chacma baboons. Behaviour 137: 337–359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, H. (1997). Analysing animal social structure. Anim. Behav. 53: 1053–1067.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wickings, E., and Dixson, A. (1992). Testicular function, secondary sexual development, and social status in male mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx). Phys. Behav. 52: 909–916.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widemo, F., and Saether, S. (1999). Beauty is in the eye of the beholder: Causes and consequences of variation in mating preferences. Trends Ecol. Evol. 14: 26–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willson, M. F., and Pianka, E. R. (1963). Sexual selection, sex ratio and mating system.Am. Nat. 97: 405–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. O. (1975). Sociobiology, Belknap Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, B., Tautz, D., and Kappeler, P. M. (submitted). The genetic population structure of the grey mouse lemur Microcebus murinus, a basal primate from Madagascar.

  • Wrangham, R. W. (1980). An ecological model of female-bonded primate groups. Behaviour 75: 262–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wrangham, R.W. (1987). Evolution of social structure. In Smuts, B. B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W., and Struhsaker, T. T. (eds.), Primate Societies, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 282–297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1986). Ecological correlates of monogamy in Aotus and Callicebus. In Else, J. G., and Lee, P. C. (eds.), Primate Ecology and Conservation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 159–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1989). The nocturnal primate niche in the NewWorld. J. Hum. Evol. 18: 635–658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1990). Patterns of paternal care in primates. Int. J. Primatol. 11: 89–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1997). Behavioral and ecological comparisons of Neotropical and Malagasy primates. In Kinzey, W. (ed.), New World Primates: Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, Aldine de Gruyter, New York, pp. 127–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, P. C. (1999). Lemur traits and Madagascar ecology: Coping with an island environment.Ybk. Phys. Anthropol. 42: 31–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zinner, D.P., and Deschner, T. (2000). Sexual swellings in female Hamadryas baboons after male take-overs: “deceptive” swellings as a possible female counter-strategy against infanticide.Am. J. Primatol. 52: 157–168.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zinner, D. P., Schwibbe, M. H., and Kaumanns, W. (1994). Cycle synchrony and probability of conception in female hamadryas baboons, Papio hamadryas. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 35: 175–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, S. (1932). The Social Life of Monkeys and Apes, Harcourt, Brace, New York.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Kellnerweg 4, Abteilung Verhaltensforschung/Ökologie, 37077, Göttingen, Germany

    Peter M. Kappeler

  2. Department of Biological Anthropology and Anatomy, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708

    Carel P. van Schaik

Authors
  1. Peter M. Kappeler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carel P. van Schaik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Kappeler, P.M., van Schaik, C.P. Evolution of Primate Social Systems. International Journal of Primatology 23, 707–740 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015520830318

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015520830318

Search

Navigation