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Evolving trade undercurrents at the regional level: tides of India’s preferential trading in the Indian Ocean and beyond

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Indian Journal of International Law

Abstract

The Indian Ocean region has seen an exchange of goods and commodities since antiquity. Long before the emergence of modern nation states and the Westphalian concept of sovereignty, Indian territory saw a regular arrival of foreign merchants and commodities. At the same time, there is a long history of Indian merchants and commodities exploring the expanses of Southeast Asia, West Asia, Southeast Africa and beyond. The Indian Ocean region comprises a number of emerging and developing economies and is considered a dynamic region in terms of trade prospects. A number of preferential trade agreements are doing the round in this region which not only present a prospect to revive the age-old trade linkages within the Indian Ocean region but also foster a promising model of South-South cooperation. Being a large economy, India has an important role to play within the region. Not only that, platforms such as RCEP present India an opportunity to participate in rule-making in the realms of international economic law. Such engagements become even more significant when rule-making at the global trade institution WTO is experiencing a phase of stagnation and while the world is witnessing a wave of protectionism, isolationism, and very recently, a trade war between two giant economies.

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Notes

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  2. World Trade Organization, <https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm#top> (accessed October 6, 2018).

  3. Ruchir Sharma, Breakout Nations: In Pursuit of the Next Economic Miracles (W. W. Norton, New York, 2012) 38-39 (hereinafter ‘Sharma, Breakout Nations’).

  4. Jawahar Lal Nehru was the first prime minister of independent India. Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, a statistician and later a central figure of the first Planning Commission of India, was one of Nehru’s closest advisors. Mahalanobis framed a model to hasten India’s development via state intervention and to minimize contact with the rest of the world. Sanyal, The Indian Renaissance, supra note 1, pp. 28-51; Divesh Kaul, Eliminating Trade Barriers through Preferential Trade Agreements: Perspectives from South Asia, 25:2 Tulane J Intl & Comp L (2017) 355, 377. See generally Pulapre Balakrishnan, The Recovery of India: Economic Growth in the Nehru Era, 42:45/46 Economic and Political Weekly (2007) 52, passim; Sanjay Seth, “Nehruvian Socialism,” 1927-1937: Nationalism, Marxism, and the Pursuit of Modernity, 18:4 Alternatives: Global, Local, Political (1993) 453, passim; Muhammad Qasim et al., Nehru’s Political Ideology in the Light of his Concept of Socialism, Nationalism and Gandhism, 2:2 International Journal of Social Science and Economic Research (2017) 2370, passim; Fabian Socialism, <http://www.indiapolicy.org/debate/defs.html> (accessed October 7, 2018) (discussing the roots of Nehruvian Fabian Socialism in India).

  5. Thomas L. Friedman, It’s a Flat World, After All, The New York Times(April 3, 2005) <https://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/03/magazine/its-a-flat-world-after-all.html>; see generally Thomas L. Friedman, The World is Flat 3.0: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century (Picador, New York, 2007).

  6. Sanyal, The Indian Renaissance, supra note 1, pp. 28-51.

  7. World Bank Trade Statistics, available at <https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/IND/Year/1988/Summarytext> (accessed October 7, 2018).

  8. V. S. Seshadri, India’s International Trade: Trends and Perspectives, 12:3 Indian Foreign Affairs Journal (2017) 181, 182.

  9. World Bank Trade Statistics, available at <https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/IND/Year/2016/Summarytext> (accessed October 7, 2018).

  10. Ibid.

  11. World Bank Trade Statistics Portal, <https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/USA/Year/2015/SummaryText> (accessed October 7, 2018) (As of 2015. Trade-GDP ratio of the year 2016 not available).

  12. Sharma, Breakout Nations, supra note 3, 38.

  13. Generated from World Bank Trade Statistics Portal, <https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/IND/Year/2016/SummaryText> (accessed October 7, 2018).

  14. Details available at the WTO portal, <http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicSearchByMemberResult.aspx?MemberCode=356&lang=1&redirect=1> (accessed October 7, 2018).

  15. Ram K. Regmi et al., Impact of SAFTA on South Asian Trade, 7:3 Asian Economic and Financial Review (2017) 232, 232.

  16. Raj Bhala, India at 70: Unwinding Partition with GATT (hereinafter ‘Bhala, India at 70’), Bloomberg Quint (August 13, 2017) <https://www.bloombergquint.com/opinion/india-at-70-unwinding-partition-with-gatt>.

  17. Under the provision of Article XXIV:11 of GATT 1947, available at <http://www.worldtradelaw.net/uragreements/gatt.pdf.download> (accessed October 9, 2018).

  18. Bhala, India at 70, supra note 16.

  19. Raj Kumar & Manjeeta Singh, India’s Role in South Asia Trade and Investment Integration p. 1 (Asian Development Bank Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration, Paper No. 32, 2009) <https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28506/wp32-india-role-south-asia-trade.pdf>.

  20. Ibid., p. 9; Bhumitra Chakma, SAARC and Region-building: Is South Asia a Region?, 14:2 Journal of the Indian Ocean Region (2018) 189, passim.

  21. USAID, A Primer: Trade Relations between Pakistan & India (1947-2012), (May 2012), available at <http://www.indiapakistantrade.org/pdf/Trade%20Deliverable%201%20Final%20%20Given%20by%20Dr.%20Aisha.pdf>.

  22. Ibid.

  23. Zafar Mahmood, Moving toward Pakistan-India Trade Normalization: An Overview, in Michael Kugelman & Robert M. Hathaway (eds) Pakistan-India Trade: What Needs to be Done? What Does it Matter? (WWICS, 2013) 19.

  24. Sumit Ganguly, Conflict Unending: India-Pakistan Tensions since 1947 (CUP, New York, 2002); Council on Foreign Relations, Conflict between India and Pakistan, <https://www.cfr.org/interactives/global-conflict-tracker?cid=ppc-Google-grant-conflict_tracker-031116&gclid=CO7uruyKq9ECFYZLDQodhDEDyw#!/conflict/conflict-between-india-and-pakistan> (accessed October 8, 2018); Kashmir: Why India and Pakistan Fight over It, BBC (November 23, 2016), <https://www.bbc.com/news/10537286>; Katie Hunt, India and Pakistan’s Kashmir Dispute: What You Need to Know, CNN (September 27, 2017) <https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/30/asia/kashmir-explainer/index.html>.

  25. Michael Kugelman, The Pakistan-India Trade Relationship: Prospects, Profits, and Pitfalls, in Michael Kugelman & Robert M. Hathaway (eds) Pakistan-India Trade: What Needs to be Done? What Does it Matter? (2013) 3.

  26. SAARC, <http://saarc-sec.org/about-saarc> (accessed October 12, 2018) (the eight member-States being Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka); see Kaul, supra note 4, 376 (detailing on SAARC and trade barriers in South Asia).

  27. SAARC, <http://saarc-sec.org/areas_of_cooperation> (accessed October 12, 2018) (SAARC’s programs run across different areas including agriculture, rural development, education, energy, environment, poverty alleviations, and biotechnology); Chakma, supra note 20, 189-205.

  28. SAARC Chamber, <https://www.saarcchamber.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=401&Itemid=530> (accessed October 12, 2018).

  29. Ranjit Kumar, South Asian Union: Problems, Possibilities and Prospects (2005) 80.

  30. SAFTA Agreement, available at <http://saarc-sec.org/digital_library/detail_menu/agreement-on-south-asian-free-trade-area-safta> (accessed October 12, 2018).

  31. Ibid.

  32. Ibid.

  33. Ibid.

  34. SATIS Agreement, <http://commerce.nic.in/trade/SAARC%20Agreement%20on%20Trade%20in%20Services%20SATS.pdf>.

  35. World Bank, <http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/south-asia-regional-integration>; UNESCAP, Unlocking the Potential of Regional Economic Cooperation and Integration in South Asia (2017) <https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/publications/Report_Regional_Economic_Cooperation_and_Integration_in_South_Asia_12052017.pdf> (accessed October 12, 2018); Regmi et al., supra note 15, 232.

  36. Data available at ARIC – Asian Development Bank, <https://aric.adb.org> (accessed October 13, 2018).

  37. Rajan Sudesh Ratna & Sachin Kumar Sharma, Mega Trading Blocks: Is Time Rime for ASEAN-SAARC FTA?, 17:2 South Asia Economic Journal (2016) 181, 187.

  38. Data available at WTO statistics/database, <http://stat.wto.org/Home/WSDBHome.aspx>; see Pushia K. P. & Jayesh G., Integration through Trade and Investment with Special Reference to SAFTA, 9:2 International Journal of South Asian Studies (2016) 241-250 (discussing the trade growth India witnessed with SAARC between 2010 and 2016).

  39. Regmi et al., supra note 15, 233.

  40. Data available at ARIC – Asian Development Bank, <https://aric.adb.org> (accessed October 14, 2018).

  41. Ruchir Sharma, The Rise and Fall of Nations: Forces of Change in the Post-Crisis World (W W Norton, 2016) 178-79 (hereinafter ‘Sharma: The Rise and Fall of Nations’).

  42. Ibid., 178-79; Sanjay Kathuria, 5 Lessons on Regional Integration, World Economic Forum (July 23, 2015) <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/07/5-lessons-on-regional-integration/>.

  43. World Bank, One South Asia, <http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/south-asia-regional-integration> (accessed October 12, 2018); see Farooq Arshad & Lubna Abid Ali, Regionalism in South Asia and Role of SAARC, 35 Pakistan Journal of History and Culture (2017) 123, passim (discussing India-Pakistan relations impact on SAARC); Manasi Singh, SAARC for Geopolitical Symbolism: Whither Multilateralism? 23 South Asian Survey (2016) 1, 1-16; see also Bibek Chand, Assessing Modi’s Neighborhood First Policy: The China Factor in Indo-Nepalese Relations (2017), available at <http://web.isanet.org/Web/Conferences/HKU2017-s/Archive/1936df02-5d5f-4a4a-986a-e0afaf0b8d74.pdf> (accessed October 15, 2018) (despite Prime Minister Modi’s ‘Neighborhood First Policy,’ India-Nepal relations have not been the sweetest).

  44. Indra Nath Mukherji & Subrata Kumar Behera, Investment Cooperation for Deeper Economic Integration in South Asia, 12:2 Trade Insight: A Dialogue on Trade and Development in South Asia(2016) 14, 14-20.

  45. Ibid.

  46. Prema-chandra Athukorala, Intra-Regional FDI and Economic Integration in South Asia: Trends, Patterns and Prospects, UNCTAD Background Paper No. RVC 7, 2013, p. 9, <https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ecidc2013misc1_bp7.pdf>; Ratnakar Adhikari & Paras Kharel, Nepal and SAFTA: Issues, Prospects and Challenges, in Mohammad A. Razzaque & Yurendra Basnet (eds) Regional Integration in South Asia: Trends, Challenges and Prospects (Commonwealth Secretariat, 2014) 8.

  47. See generally, Simon Lester, The Role of International Trade Regime in Global Governance, 16 UCLA Journal of Law & Foreign Affairs (2011) 209, passim (commenting on the third era of global trade governance and the various elements).

  48. Ravindra Singh, Deepening Regional Economic Integration in South Asia: Potential and Prospects 10:2 Jharkhand Journal of Social Development (2017) 27, 29-30.

  49. Athukorala, supra note 46, 10.

  50. Singh, supra note 48, 28.

  51. Ibid.

  52. Huma Siddiqui, India, Sri Lanka Likely to Finalise ETCA by Year End, Financial Express(May 17, 2017) <https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/india-sri-lanka-likely-to-finalise-etca-by-year-end/672118/>; Piumi Gamanayake, The Economic and Technological Cooperation Agreement: Full Steam Ahead for India and Sri Lanka? LSE Blogs(October 20, 2016) <http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/74639/1/blogs.lse.ac.uk-The%20Economic%20and%20Technological%20Cooperation%20Agreement%20Full%20steam%20ahead%20for%20India%20and%20Sri%20Lanka.pdf>.

  53. Hiroyuki Taguchi, Trade Impacts of South Asian Free Trade Agreements: The Case of Sri Lanka, MPRA Paper No. 85238 (2018) pp. 1-15, available at <https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/85238/1/MPRA_paper_85238.pdf>.

  54. Tariq A. Karim, South Asia’s Efforts at Regional Reintegration: Fantasy or Feasible?, Asia Pacific Bulletin, no 368 (January 18, 2017), available at <https://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/south-asias-efforts-regional-reintegration-fantasy-or-feasible>.

  55. Chakma, supra note 20, 196-97.

  56. Ibid, 198.

  57. See Chand, supra note 43; Chris Ogden, Tone Shift: India’s Dominant Foreign Policy Aims under Modi, 1:1 Indian Politics & Policy(2018) 3,passim; Sumit Ganguly, Has Modi Truly Changed India’s Foreign Policy?, 40:2 The Washington Quarterly 131, 131-43 (2017); Angana Das, India’s Neighborhood Policy: Challenges and Prospects, 4 Jindal Journal of International Affairs 18, passim (2016); Nimmi Kurian, Subterranean Subregionalism: Interrogating the Role of Borders in Indian IR, 24 Research Journal Social Sciences (2016) 27, 27-51; R.S. Yadav, Re-inventing Politics in India: Exploring Modi’s Foreign Policy, available at <http://paperroom.ipsa.org/papers/paper_49089.pdf> (accessed October 13, 2018) (more discussion on Prime Minister Modi’s Neighborhood First policy).

  58. Singh, supra note 48, 28.

  59. Ibid.

  60. Karim, supra note 54.

  61. Ibid.; K. Yhome & Tridivesh Singh Maini, Regionalism: SAARC and Beyond, Observer Research Foundation Occasional Paper no 135 (2017) p. 8.

  62. Karim, supra note 54; Chakma, supra note 20, 195.

  63. Chakma, supra note 20, 195.

  64. Asian Development Bank, <https://www.adb.org/countries/subregional-programs/sasec> (accessed October 15, 2018).

  65. Ibid.

  66. See Ashok Sajjanhar, Taking Stock of India’s ‘Act East Policy’, Observer Research Foundation Issue No. 142 (2016), available at <https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/ORF_Issue_Brief_142_A_Sajjanhar.pdf>; East Asia Forum, <http://www.eastasiaforum.org/tag/act-east-policy/> (accessed October 15, 2018) (detailing Act East policy).

  67. BIMSTEC, <https://bimstec.org>; Shruti Godbole, Revival of BIMSTEC at the Kathmandu Summit?, Brookings (August 29, 2018) <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2018/08/29/revival-of-bimstec-at-the-kathmandu-summit/>; N Chandra Mohan, BIMSTEC: An Idea Whose Time has Come?, ORF Issue no. 164 (2016), <https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/ORF-Issue-rief-164-Bimstec.pdf>; Constantino Xavier, Bridging the Bay of Bengal: Toward a Stronger BIMSTEC, Carnegie India(2018), <https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CP_325_Xavier_Bay_of_Bengal_INLINE.pdf>; K. Yhome, BIMSTEC: Rediscovering Old Routes to Connectivity, ORF Issue no. 213 (2017), <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321608868_BIMSTEC_Rediscovering_old_routes_to_connectivity> (more details on BIMSTEC).

  68. Chietigj Bajpaee, Dephasing India’s Look East/Act East Policy, 39:2 Contemporary Southeast Asia (2017) 348, 359.

  69. Chakma, supra note 20, 195.

  70. Ibid., 195-97.

  71. P K Mishra et al., Economic Growth, Structural Change and Intersectoral Linkages in SAARC Economies, 17:2 Regional and Sectoral Economic Studies (2017) 75, 75-88; Nikita Singla, Regional Trade Barriers in South Asia: SAARC Lagging Behind ASEAN, 12 SIBM Pune Research Journal (2016) 54, 54-61; Singh, supra note 48, 30; Mukherji & Behera, supra note 44, 14-20; Sanjay Kathuria & Ravindra Yatawara, Trade-Investment Links Get Increasingly Intricate, 12:2 Trade Insight: A Dialogue on Trade and Development in South Asia(2016) 10-13 (need for a strong regional investment regime); Kaul, supra note 4, 396-402.

  72. Jason Burke & Jon Boone, Narendra Modi Invites Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to Inauguration, The Guardian (May 21, 2014) <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/21/narendra-modi-invites-pakistan-nawaz-sharif-inauguration>; 8 World Leaders Who Got Narendra Modi’s Invitation for Swearing In, Times of India (May 23, 2014) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/8-world-leaders-who-got-Narendra-Modis-invitation-for-swearing-in/articleshow/35524046.cms> (all the SAARC nations heads of state or their representatives along with the Prime Minister of Mauritius attended the event).

  73. See Anwar Alam, India, Non-Alignment and Emerging Global Governance, 73:3 India Quarterly (2017) 273, passim.

  74. DNA, India Considers Asian, African Region as Part of its Extended Neighbourhood: Sushma Swaraj (April 23, 2015) <https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-india-considers-asian-african-region-as-part-of-its-extended-neighbourhood-sushma-swaraj-2079895>; David Scott, India’s “Extended Neighborhood” Concept: Power Projection for a Rising Power, 8:2 India Review (2009) 107, passim; Business Standard, Extended Neighborhood in Southeast Asia a Priority for India: Modi (August 29, 2018), https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/extended-neighbourhood-in-southeast-asia-a-priority-for-india-modi-118082901315_1.html; G. Parthasarathy, Beyond South Asia–Indian Foreign Policy 3.0, Livemint (September 27, 2018) <https://www.livemint.com/Politics/84BXShkr42gSNnFiV4yqcK/Beyond-South-Asia-Indian-foreign-policy-30.html>; see Rajendra K. Jain, From Idealism to Pragmatism: India and Asian Regional Integration, 12:2 Japanese Journal of Political Science (2011) 213, passim; Abhijnan Rej, Beyond India’s Quest for a Neoliberal Order, 40:2 Washington Quarterly (2017) 145, 148; Bajpaee, supra note 68, passim (detailing the Asian regional and Look East to Act East narratives).

  75. Vinay Kaura, Grading India’s Neighborhood Diplomacy: A Report Card on Modi’s “Neighborhood First” Approach to Foreign Policy, The Diplomat (January 01, 2018) <https://thediplomat.com/2017/12/grading-indias-neighborhood-diplomacy/>.

  76. Times of India, India Marks 69th Republic Day with Grand Parade; Asean Leaders Attend as Chief Guests (January 26, 2018) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-marks-69th-republic-day-with-grand-parade-asean-leaders-attend-as-chief-guests/articleshow/62662016.cms>.

  77. See Ministry of External Affairs – Government of India <http://mea.gov.in/aseanindia/20-years.htm> (accessed October 22, 2018); Alam, supra note 73, 282; Sanghamitra Kalita, India’s Act Easy Policy and North-east: Prospects and Challenges, 3 International Journal of Advanced Research and Development (2018) 268, passim; Preety Bhogal, India-ASEAN Economic Relations: Examining Future Possibilities, Observer Research Foundation, Issue no. 221 (2018) pp. 1-8, <https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/ORF_Issue_Brief_221_India_ASEAN.pdf>; Suyash Desai, Revisiting ASEAN-India Relations, The Diplomat(November 18, 2017) <https://thediplomat.com/2017/11/revisiting-asean-india-relations/>; Bajpaee, supra note 68, 351 (the predecessor of the Look East policy, ‘Look East Destiny’ was launched in 1980s).

  78. Ibid., 352.

  79. Ibid.

  80. Ibid.

  81. Ibid.

  82. Ibid.

  83. Ibid., 358.

  84. Ministry of External Affairs – Government of India, <http://mea.gov.in/aseanindia/20-years.htm>; Harsh V. Pant & Avantika Deb, India-ASEAN Partnership at 25, ORF, Issue no. 189 (2017) p. 4.

  85. Ministry of External Affairs – Government of India, supra note 84; ASEAN, <https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Overview-ASEAN-India-as-of-July-2018-fn.pdf> (accessed October 22, 2018); Surojit Gupta, Indo-Asean Trade Rises 10% to $72 bn in FY17, but is Long Way Off Potential, Times of India(January 26, 2018) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/indo-asean-trade-rises-10-to-72bn-in-fy17-but-is-long-way-off-potential/articleshow/62657555.cms>.

  86. Terri Chapman, ASEAN and India: Five for the Next Five, ORF Special Report (2018) pp. 1-12, <https://www.orfonline.org/research/asean-and-india-five-for-the-next-five/> (specifically, the five strategic areas defining the India-ASEAN partnership cover: [1] ‘improved physical connectivity to reduce non-tariff barriers,’ [2] ‘security cooperation in the Indian Ocean region and enhancing economic development in ocean-related activities,’ [3] ‘cooperation in the area of cyber security strategies,’ [4] ‘policy measures to augment labor mobility between the two regions,’ and [5] ‘formulate a collective soft-power approach along the lines of strengthening a rules-based approach to governance in the area’).

  87. Diane A. Desierto, ASEAN Investment Treaties, RCEP, and CPTPP: Regional Strategies, Norms, Institutions, and Politics, 27 Washington International Law Journal (2018) 349, 350-57.

  88. Ibid., 353.

  89. The ASEAN-India Investment Agreement, <http://investmentpolicyhub.unctad.org/IIA/treaty/3503> (accessed October 20, 2018).

  90. John Ravenhill, The Political Economy of an “Asian” Mega-FTA: The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, 56:6 Asian Survey (2016) 1077, 1083-88.

  91. Ibid., With an exception to the agricultural sector,

  92. Ibid.

  93. Ibid.

  94. Ibid., 1086.

  95. Ibid., 1083-88.

  96. Ibid.

  97. ASEAN Plus One agreements comprise ASEAN’s bilateral agreements with Australia/New Zealand, China, India, Japan, and South Korea.

  98. Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1087.

  99. ASEAN, <https://asean.org/?static_post=towards-asean-financial-integration> (accessed October 22, 2018).

  100. Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1087.

  101. Ibid.

  102. Ratna & Sharma, supra note 37, passim.

  103. See Tomas Hirst, What are Mega-regional Trade Agreements?, World Economic Forum (July 09, 2014) <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/07/trade-what-are-megaregionals/>; Chad P. Brown, Mega-regional Trade Agreements and the Future of the WTO, 8 Global Policy (2017) 107, passim; Elizabeth Sheargold, ‘Mega-Regional’ Agreements and Economic Integration in the Asia-Pacific: A Means to Untangle the ‘Noodle Bowl’?, Melbourne School of Government, Issue Paper Series no. 05/14 (2014) pp. 1-28, <https://government.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/2654434/Issues_Paper__Mega_Regional.pdf>; Joseph Purugganan, Asia and the Mega Free Trade Agreements, Focus on the Global South <https://focusweb.org/content/asia-and-mega-free-trade-agreements> (accessed October 22, 2018); Ben Shepherd, Mega-Regional Trade Agreements and Asia: An Application of Structural Gravity to Goods, Services, and Value Chains, Developing Trade Consultants (2018) pp. 1-27, <https://developing-trade.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Working-Paper-DTC-2018-1.pdf>.

  104. Ratna & Sharma, supra note 37, 182.

  105. Such as Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Singapore and Vietnam.

  106. Ratna & Sharma, supra note 37, 185.

  107. Pant & Deb, supra note 84, pp. 1-8.

  108. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, <http://mea.gov.in/aseanindia/about-mgc.htm.>; The Indian Express, India Calls for Expanding Cooperation with MGC Member Countries (August 08, 2017) <https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-calls-for-expanding-cooperation-with-mgc-member-countries-vk-singh-4787053/>.

  109. Andreas Pramudianto, ASEAN Commitment to Sustainable Development in the Regional International Environmental Law Perspective, 6:3 International Relations and Diplomacy (2018) 171, 174-180 (ASEAN’s four key sustainable areas are (1) conservation and sustainability management of biodiversity and natural resources; (2) environmentally sustainable cities; (3) sustainable consumption and production and; (4) sustainable climate); see World Bank, What is the Blue Economy (June 06, 2017) <http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/infographic/2017/06/06/blue-economy>; What on Earth is the “Blue” Economy, Conservation International (March 07, 2018) <https://blog.conservation.org/2018/03/what-on-earth-is-the-blue-economy/>; Blue Economy, The Commonwealth <http://thecommonwealth.org/blue-economy> (‘Blue economy’ implies sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs, and ocean ecosystem health. It encompasses maritime transport, renewable energy, fisheries, tourism, climate change, and waste management).

  110. Ratna & Sharma, supra note 37, passim; Pant & Deb, supra note 84, p. 4.

  111. See Imbulagodage Don Indra Kumari & Witchayanee Ocha, Effects of ASEAN on SAARC: The Perspective of Trade, 3:1 RSUInternational Journal of College of Government (2016) 47, passim.

  112. ASEAN Web portal, <https://asean.org/?static_post=rcep-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership> (accessed October 23, 2018); Ravenhill, supra note 90, passim.

  113. ASEAN web portal, supra note 112.

  114. Ibid.

  115. Ibid.

  116. Siow Yue Chia, Realisation of AEC by End-2015 and Challenges in RCEP Negotiations, ASEAN Center (2016) pp. 13-15, <http://www.aseancenter.org.tw/upload/images/outlook/012/03Realisation%20of%20AEC%20by%20end.pdf>; Ganesh Wignaraja, India’s Economic Potential in Looking East, Asia Pacific Bulletin, no. 300 (2015) pp. 1-2, <https://www.eastwestcenter.org/system/tdf/private/apb300.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=34944>.

  117. Pasha L. Hsieh, The RCEP: New Asian Regionalism and the Global South, NYU School of Law IILJ Working Paper 2017/4 (2017) pp. 1-49 (for instance, India proposed a three-tiered tariff slabs for different RCEP countries between 42.5 percent to 80 percent tariff reductions based on three different categories. India later gave up this idea while it reevaluated gains in services and investment and as other RCEP members protested against the differing slabs).

  118. Yue Chia, supra note 116.

  119. Ibid.; Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1089.

  120. Yue Chia, supra note 116; Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1089; Ganeshan Wignaraja, What does RCEP Mean for Insiders and Outsiders? The Experience of India and Sri Lanka, Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade Working Paper, Series no. 181 (2018) p. 12, <https://artnet.unescap.org/publications/working-papers/what-does-rcep-mean-insiders-and-outsiders-experience-india-and-sri>; Shruti Srivastava, China-Backed Asia Trade Pact to be Examined by India Panel, Bloomberg (August 08, 2018) <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-08/china-backed-asia-trade-pact-said-to-be-examined-by-india-panel>; B. P. Sarath Chandran, India in the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) – Need for Caution, MPRA, Paper no. 84201 (2018) pp. 1-13, available at <https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/84201/1/MPRA_paper_84201.pdf>; Belinda Townsend et al., The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership, Intellectual Property Protection, and Access to Medicines, 28:6 Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health (2016) 682, passim; Peter K. Yu, The RCEP and Trans-Pacific Intellectual Property Norms, 50 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law (2017) 673, passim.

  121. See Investment Treaty News, International Institute for Sustainable Development, <https://www.iisd.org/itn/tag/rcep/>; Subhayan Chakraborty, RCEP Countries Open to Easing Investment Rules, Agree to Ease ISDS Clauses, Business Standard (September 08, 2018) <https://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/rcep-countries-open-to-easing-investment-rules-agree-to-ease-isds-clauses-118090800031_1.html>.

  122. Wolfgang Alschner, Regionalism and Overlap in Investment Treaty Law – Towards Consolidation or Consolidation?, (2014) pp. 1-48, available at <http://graduateinstitute.ch/files/live/sites/iheid/files/sites/ctei/shared/CTEI/people/students/Wolfgang%20Alschner/Alschner%20Regionalism%20and%20Overlap%20in%20Investment%20Treaty%20Law.pdf>.

  123. UNCTAD World Investment Report (2012) pp. 135-141; Sonia E. Rolland & David M. Trubek, Legal Innovation in Investment Law: Rhetoric and Practice in Emerging Countries, 39 University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Law (2017) 355, 433; see Julien Chaisse, The Shifting Tectonics of International Investment Law – Structure and Dynamics of Rules and Arbitration on Foreign Investment in the Asia-Pacific Region, 47 George Washington International Law Review (2015) 563 (detailing the foreign investment framework in the Asia-Pacific region).

  124. Desierto, supra note 87, 382.

  125. Spenser Karr, A Battle for Choice: Selecting Investor-State Arbitrators under the RCEP, 90 Temple Law Review (2017) 127, passim.

  126. Rolland & Trubek, supra note 123, passim.

  127. Karr, supra note 125, passim.

  128. Wignaraja, supra note 120, p. 12.

  129. Mihir Sharma, India Can’t Turn its Back on Free Trade, Bloomberg (August 13, 2018) <https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2018-08-14/india-can-t-afford-to-play-spoiler-in-rcep-talks>.

  130. Ibid.

  131. Kenneth Rapoza, Trade War Update: Is China Dumping Products in India?, Forbes (August 03, 2018) <https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2018/08/03/trade-war-update-is-china-dumping-products-in-india/#7d910f2a7332>; India, China Spar over Steel Dumping, Business Today (April 09, 2018) <https://www.businesstoday.in/current/policy/steel-dumping-india-china-spar-chinese-steel-products/story/233616.html>; India has Initiated 214 Anti-dumping Probe against China: Commerce Minister, Economic Times (July 18, 2018) <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/policy/india-has-initiated-214-anti-dumping-probe-against-china-commerce-minister/articleshow/65039926.cms>.

  132. Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1089-90.

  133. Ibid.

  134. Ibid., 1090.

  135. Somesh K. Mathur et al., Relative Benefits/Losses of India Aligning with RCEP and BRICS Countries under the Conjecture of Free Trade Area in Goods, Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade, Working Paper Series no. 160 (2016) pp. 1-37, available at <https://www.unescap.org/resources/relative-benefitslosses-india-aligning-rcep-and-brics-countries-under-conjecture-free>; Wignaraja, supra note 120, pp. 1-28; David A. Gantz, The TPP and RCEP: Mega-Trade Agreements for the Pacific Rim, 33 Arizona Journal of International & Comparative Law (2016) 57, 63-64.

  136. Mathur et al., supra note 135.

  137. Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1095; China Seeks FTA with India to Boost Trade Opportunities, Times of India (April 28, 2018) <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/india-business/china-seeks-fta-with-india-to-boost-trade-opportunities/articleshow/63951590.cms>; Asian Development Bank, Free Trade Agreement between People’s Republic of China and India: Likely Impact and its Implications to Asian Economic Community, <https://www.adb.org/publications/free-trade-agreement-between-peoples-republic-china-and-india-likely-impact-and-its> (accessed October 24, 2018).

  138. Ravenhill, supra note 90, 1095.

  139. Hsieh, supra note 117, pp. 1-49.

  140. Ibid.

  141. Ibid., pp. 7-8.

  142. Ibid.

  143. Ibid.; Declaration on the New International Economic Order (hereinafter ‘NIEO’), <http://www.un-documents.net/s6r3201.htm> (by way of the NIEO Declaration, a multitude of developing countries sought a restructured international order with the help of UNCTAD that provided greater equity to developing countries in regard to trade, finance, favorable market access, reduced tariffs, and other related issues).

  144. Hsieh, supra note 117, pp. 8-9.

  145. Ibid.

  146. Ibid.

  147. Ibid.

  148. Ibid., p. 9.

  149. Ibid., pp. 10-11.

  150. Ibid., p. 11.

  151. Ibid.

  152. Ibid., pp. 7-11.

  153. Ibid.

  154. US Department of State, <https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/bandung-conf>; Encyclopaedia Britannica, <https://www.britannica.com/event/Bandung-Conference>; The South Centre, <https://www.southcentre.int/question/revisiting-the-1955-bandung-asian-african-conference-and-its-legacy/>.

  155. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, <https://mea.gov.in/in-focus-article.htm?20349/History+and+Evolution+of+NonAligned+Movement>; Encyclopedia Britannica, <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Non-Aligned-Movement>; BBC, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/2798187.stm>; The Times of India, <https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/jawaharlal-nehru-the-architect-of-indias-foreign-policy/articleshow/58767014.cms>.

  156. Hsieh, supra note 117, p. 19.

  157. Ibid.

  158. See generally EJIL Live: Interview with Professor Bhupinder Chimni on his Life and Life Work, <https://www.ejiltalk.org/new-ejil-live-interview-with-professor-bhupinder-chimni-on-his-life-and-life-work/> (October 26, 2018) (scholarship of Professor Chimni).

  159. B. S. Chimni, Third World Approaches to International Law: A Manifesto, 8 International Community Law Review (2006) 3, 3-27 (hereinafter ‘Chimni, Third World Approaches’).

  160. Professor Chimni’s Talk on International Economic Law (hereinafter ‘Chimni YouTube Talk’), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BccoVlPD-j0 (accessed October 10, 2018); B. S. Chimni, International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making, 15 European Journal of International Law (2004) 1, 1-37 (hereinafter ‘Chimni, International Institutions Today’).

  161. Chimni You Tube Talk, supra note 160; Chimni, International Institutions Today, supra note 160.

  162. Chimni You Tube Talk, supra note 160; see Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom(OUP, Oxford, 1999); Amartya Sen, Human Rights and Capabilities, 6:2 Journal of Human Development (2005) 151, 151-66 (Sen stresses on development as an exercise to overcoming an array of deprivations including poverty, unfulfilled needs, occurrence of famines and widespread hunger, violations of elementary political freedoms and basic liberties, neglect of the interest and agency of women, and threats to our environment and sustainability of economic and social lives).

  163. B. S. Chimni, Mapping Indian Foreign Economic Policy, 47:2-4 International Studies (2010) 163, 164 (hereinafter ‘Chimni, Indian Foreign Economic Policy’).

  164. Ibid., 164-70.

  165. ASEAN, <https://asean.org/?static_post=rcep-regional-comprehensive-economic-partnership>;

  166. Anupam Chander & Madhavi Sunder, The Battle to Define Asia’s Intellectual Property Law: From TPP to RCEP, 8 UC Irvine Law Review (2018) 331.

  167. Oxfam India, <https://www.oxfamindia.org/featuredstories/10-facts-illiteracy-india-you-must-know> (accessed November 20, 2018) (India is home to largest population of illiterate adults in world, which is 37 percent of the global total); Yarlini Balarajan et al., Health Care and Equity in India, 377(9764) Lancet (2011) 505; Debasis Barik & Amit Thorat, Issues of Unequal Access to Public Health in India, 3:245 Front Public Health (2015) 1 (detailing the inequities in health in India); Chander & Sunder, supra note 166, 334.

  168. Chander & Sunder, supra note 166, 334.

  169. Ibid., 334-45 (it is estimated that around 80 percent of antiretroviral (ART) AIDS drug utilized in Africa are supplied from India. Generic ART drugs from India have lowered the price by 99 percent and hence widened the scope of HIV treatment in African countries such as South Africa).

  170. Ibid., 334,passim (e.g. ‘adoption of new exclusive rights in clinical-trial data’; ‘reject flexibilities, provisions for compulsory licenses and extensions for deadlines to reform pharmaceutical patent laws in Least Developed Countries’; ‘adopt TRIPS-plus border measures’; and, ‘adopt investor-state dispute resolution process that would create state liability for regulating IP to promote public health’ (p. 341). With regard to copyright provisions, the draft provision does not refer to ‘fair use’ of copyrighted works (p. 348)).

  171. Ibid., 350.

  172. Hsieh, supra note 117, p. 19; Chimni, Indian Foreign Economic Policy, supra note 163, 171 (Professor Chimni draws attention to The Preamble to the Constitution of India, with an emphasis on ‘justice: social, economic and political’ as the torchbearer).

  173. Chimni, Indian Foreign Economic Policy, supra note 163, 176; see Chimni, Third World Approaches, supra note 159, 11-12 (2006) (in addition, the increased competition among the countries in path to development to attract foreign investment has led to lowering of minimum standards of rules inter alia on labor and hence, has hastened the ‘race to the bottom’).

  174. UNESCAP, <https://www.unescap.org/apta> (accessed October 25, 2018).

  175. Ibid.

  176. China Proposes BRICS Free Trade Area, The BRICS Post(October 10, 2016) <http://thebricspost.com/china-proposes-brics-free-trade-area/#.W9DO6KeZPEY>; Arun S, China’s BRICS Trade Pact Idea Finds No Takers, The Hindu (updated October 18, 2016) <https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/China’s-BRICS-trade-pact-idea-finds-no-takers/article14640117.ece>.

  177. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, <http://eng.sectsco.org/about_sco/>; Xi Offers Free Trade to Shanghai Cooperation Organization Members, China Briefing (June 12, 2017) <http://www.china-briefing.com/news/xi-offers-free-trade-shanghai-cooperation-organization-members/>; see Asian Development Bank, <https://aric.adb.org/fta/shanghai-cooperation-organization-free-trade-agreement>; E Sorhun, What Kind of Trade Integration Would the SCO’s Further FTA Be?, in Globalization and Governance in the International Political Economy (2014) pp. 63-73, available at <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278672286_What_kind_of_trade_integration_would_the_SCO's_further_FTA_be> (detailing the discourse on a possible SCO FTA).

  178. See SCO, <http://eng.sectsco.org/about_sco/> (SCO currently has eight member states: China, India, Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan).

  179. Sanjiv Sanyal, The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History(2016).

  180. Ibid, (Sanyal suggests the trade links between India and the other countries in the region led to cultural exchange. In a span of a few countries, a strong influence of Indic civilization took place on the region. This included the imprints of Hindu and Buddhist religions, scripts, the Sanskrit language, scripts, and temple architecture, etc. Since AD 70, India also witnessed an influx of Jewish, Arab traders and Syrian Christians along the Malabar Coast in south-western region of India. Thus, India became home to one of the oldest Jewish settlements in the world and to Cheraman mosque in Kerala (built by visiting Arab merchants) – the second oldest mosque in the world. Indian merchants were active in the Yemeni port of Aden and in South-eastern coastal areas of Africa Other countries too left strong influence. For instance, Indonesian sailors occupied Madagascar from the fifth century onward and settled there. Hence the Indic influences on Malagasy, its principal language. During the British colonial rule, another churning took place where Indians indentured laborers were transported to places like Mauritius, Fiji, and the Caribbean).

  181. Ibid., p. 85.

  182. Ibid., p. 47.

  183. Ibid.

  184. Gurpreet S Khurana, Multilateral Structures in the Indian Ocean: Review and Way Ahead, Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India (2018) 1.

  185. Bajpaee, supra note 68, 359.

  186. The Indian Ocean Rim Association (hereinafter ‘The IORA’), <http://www.iora.int/en/about/about-iora>; see Sergei DeSilva-Ranasinghe, Why the Indian Ocean Matters, The Diplomat (March 02, 2011), <https://thediplomat.com/2011/03/why-the-indian-ocean-matters/>.

  187. The IORA, <http://www.iora.int/en/about/about-iora>; Khurana, supra note 184, pp. 1-13.

  188. The IORA, supra note 187.

  189. IORA, <http://www.iora.int/media/8249/iora-at-a-glance.pdf>.

  190. Ibid.

  191. Khurana, supra note 184, pp. 1-2.

  192. Jayashree Vivekanandan & Jason Miklian, Bringing the Region Back In? Deciphering India’s Engagement with South Asia, Norwegian Peacebuilding Resource Centre (2016) 3-4, <https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jason_Miklian/publication/293480572_Bringing_the_region_back_in_Deciphering_India's_engagement_with_South_Asia/links/56b8940008ae5ad3605f4097.pdf>.

  193. Ibid., pp. 3-4.

  194. Ibid.

  195. Bajpaee, supra note 68, 359.

  196. Ibid., 360.

  197. Ibid.

  198. Arzan Tarapore, India’s Slow Emergence as a Regional Security Actor, 40:2 The Washington Quarterly (2017) 163, 163-178; Yhome & Maini, supra note 61, pp. 3-5; Bajpaee, supra note 68, 361; Chapman, supra note 86, pp. 1-12.

  199. Bajpaee, supra note 68, 361.

  200. See Yigal Chazan, India and China’s Tug of War Over Sri Lanka, The Diplomat(May 23, 2017), <https://thediplomat.com/2017/05/india-and-chinas-tug-of-war-over-sri-lanka/>; India-Sri Lanka Ties: Relations Improved in 2016, but China’s Influence a Cause for Concern, Firstpost(September 23, 2016), <https://www.firstpost.com/world/india-sri-lanka-ties-relations-improved-in-2016-but-chinas-influence-a-cause-for-concern-3170374.html>; N. Sathiya Moorthy, Sri Lanka: Re-imagining India Relations, Asia Dialogue(January 23, 2018), <http://theasiadialogue.com/2018/01/23/sri-lanka-re-imagining-india-relations/>; Rahul Roy-Chaudhary, India’s ‘Inclusive’ Indo-Pacific Policy Seeks to Balance Relations with the US and China, The International Institute for Strategic Studies (July 6, 2018) <https://www.iiss.org/blogs/analysis/2018/07/india-inclusive-indo-pacific-policy-china-relations>; Ashlyn Anderson & Alyssa Ayres, Economics of Influence: China and India in South Asia, Council on Foreign Relations (August 3, 2015) <https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/economics-influence-china-and-india-south-asia>; Satish Kumar, Modi’s Right Approach to Sri Lanka, Daily Pioneer(May 27, 2017), <https://www.dailypioneer.com/2017/columnists/modis-right-approach-to-sri-lanka-policy.html>; Dinouk Colombage, Sri Lanka Seeks to Mend Ties with India, Al Jazeera(March 12, 2015), <https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/03/sri-lanka-seeks-mend-ties-india-150309041933612.html>.

  201. Anita Prakash, The Asia-Africa Growth Corridor: Bringing Together Old Partnerships and New Initiatives, ORF, Issue Brief no. 239 (2018) pp. 1-8, available at <https://www.orfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/ORF_Issue_Brief_Asia_AfricaGrowth_Corridor.pdf>.

  202. Ibid., p. 2.

  203. Ibid., p. 3.

  204. See Research and Information System for Developing Countries portal, Asia Africa Growth Corridor, available at <http://ris.org.in/aagc/about-aagc>; P. Panda, Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC): An India-Japan Arch in the Making?, Institute for Security & Development Policy: Focus Asia (August 2017), <http://isdp.eu/content/uploads/2017/08/2017-focus-asia-jagannath-panda.pdf>; Titli Basu, Thinking Africa: India, Japan, and the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor, The Diplomat (June 03, 2017), <https://thediplomat.com/2017/06/thinking-africa-india-japan-and-the-asia-africa-growth-corridor/>.

  205. Khurana, supra note 184, p. 3.

  206. Ibid.; G. Padmaja, Modi’s Maritime Diplomacy: A Strategic Opportunity, 11:2 Maritime Affairs: Journal of National Maritime Foundation of India (2015) 25, 25-42; Balakrishna Pisupati, Redefining SAGAR in Indian Ocean, The Hindu (updated May 27, 2015) <https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/redefining-sagar-in-indian-ocean/article7248385.ece>; Harsh V. Pant, India’s Challenge in the Indian Ocean Region, ORF Online (March 20, 2018) <https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indias-challenge-in-the-indian-ocean-region/> (India has extended geostrategic and defense support and favorable line of credit to countries in the Indian Ocean region such as Mauritius and Madagascar).

  207. Alam, supra note 73, 283.

  208. See The African Union, <https://au.int/en/memberstates> (the AU comprises fifty-five Member States).

  209. See SADC, <https://www.sadc.int/member-states/> (the SADC comprises sixteen Member States).

  210. See ECOWAS, <http://www.ecowas.int> (ECOWAS comprises fifteen Member States).

  211. Alam, supra note 73, 283.

  212. See UNCTAD Handbook on Indias’ Duty-Free Tariff Preference Scheme for Least Developed Countries, <https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/itcdtsbmisc77_en.pdf> (the Duty-free Tariff Preference Scheme is a unilateral, non-reciprocal tariff preference scheme for the least developed countries).

  213. See ibid., (these are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Chad, the Comoros, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the Gambia, Haiti, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Myanmar, Rwanda, Senegal, Somalia, the Sudan, Timor-Leste, Togo, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Yemen and Zambia).

  214. Ibid.

  215. London School of Economics Centre for Africa blog, <http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/?s=India-Africa+forum-Summit>; The Diplomat, <https://thediplomat.com/tag/india-africa-forum-summit/>; Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, <http://mea.gov.in/india-africa-forum-summit-2015/index.html#>.

  216. Catalin Postelnicu et al., Economic Deglobalization – From Hypothesis to Reality, 18:2 E a M: Ekonomie a Management (2015) 4, 4, available at <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277869528_Economic_Deglobalization_-_From_Hypothesis_to_Reality>.

  217. International Labour Organization, High Unemployment and Growing Inequality Fuel Social Unrest Around the World, <https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_179430/lang--en/index.htm>; International Labour Organization, Are Economic Stagnation and Unemployment Fueling Social Unrest?, <https://www.ilo.org/newyork/voices-at-work/WCMS_217280/lang--en/index.htm> (accessed October 3, 2018); Hina Pervaiz et al., Relationship of Unemployment with Social Unrest and Psychological Distress: An Empirical Study for Juveniles, 6:7 African Journal of Business Management (2012) 2557, passim, available at <https://academicjournals.org/article/article1380784679_Pervaiz%20et%20al.pdf>.

  218. Arindham Bhattacharya, Globalisation 4.0: Radical New Phrase Driven by Digital Tech is Beginning, Financial Express (September 21, 2016), available at <https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/globalisation-4-0-radical-new-phase-driven-by-digital-tech-is-beginning/383799/>; Harold James, Deconstructing Deglobalization, Project Syndicate (September 12, 2017) available at <https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/three-emotions-underlying-deglobalization-by-harold-james-2017-09>; Pierpaolo Barbieri, The Losers of Deglobalization: Why States Should Fear the Closing of an Open World, Foreign Affairs(November 13, 2016), available at <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-11-13/losers-deglobalization>; Chris Giles, Brexit is an Example of Deglobalization (September 18, 2017), available at <https://www.ft.com/content/9b37cf6e-9c82-11e7-9a86-4d5a475ba4c5>; Haroldo Montagu, Financial Deglobalisation: A North-South Divide? (April 24, 2018), available at <https://issblog.nl/2018/04/24/deglobalisation-series-financial-deglobalisation-a-north-south-divide-by-haroldo-montagu/>.

  219. Postelnicu et al., supra note 216.

  220. Rapoza, supra note 131; Simon Nixon, Risk of Deglobalization Hangs Over World Economy, The Wall Street Journal (October 5, 2016), available at <https://www.wsj.com/articles/risk-of-deglobalization-hangs-over-world-economy-1475685469>.

  221. Ana Swanson, Trump to Impose Sweeping Steel and Aluminum Tariffs, The New York Times(March 1, 2018), available at <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/01/business/trump-tariffs.html>; David Jackson & Deirdre Shesgreen, President Trump Hits Turkey with Heavier Tariffs on Steel and Aluminum, USA Today(August 10, 2018), available at <https://www.usatoday.com/news/>; Trump Doubles Tariffs on Steel, Aluminum from Turkey, National Public Radio (August 10, 2018), available at <https://www.npr.org/2018/08/10/637445436/trump-doubles-tariffs-on-steel-aluminum-from-turkey>; Donna Borak et al., Trump Administration will Impose Tariffs on $200 Billion in Chinese Goods, CNN (updated September 18, 2018), <https://www.cnn.com/2018/09/17/politics/us-china-tariff-trade-war/index.html>; Bob Bryan, The Big One: Trump Slams China with Tariffs on $200 Billion Worth of Goods, Taking the Trade War to the Next Level, Business Insider(September 17, 2018), <https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-china-trade-war-tariff-chinese-goods-2018-9>; US-China Trade War: New Tariffs Come into Force, BBC (August 23, 2018), <https://www.bbc.com/news/business-45255623>.

  222. Raj Bhala, Trump Trade Policy Creates Opportunities for India, Bloomberg Quint (April 13, 2017), <https://www.bloombergquint.com/opinion/trump-trade-policy-creates-opportunities-for-india> (for instance, the pre-Adam Smith, pre-David Ricardo notion of mercantilism favored that the government intervene to encourage exports and discourage imports).

  223. Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, Encyclopaedia Britannica, available at <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Smoot-Hawley-Tariff-Act>; Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, Investopedia, available at <https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/smoot-hawley-tariff-act.asp>; (accessed October 1, 2018); Protectionism: The Battle of Smoot-Hawley, The Economist(December 18, 2008), available at <https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2008/12/18/the-battle-of-smoot-hawley>; David Dollar & Peter A. Petri, Why It’s Time to End the Tit-For-Tat Tariffs in the U.S.-China Trade War, Brookings (October 5, 2018), <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/10/05/why-its-time-to-end-the-tit-for-tat-tariffs-in-the-u-s-china-trade-war/>.

  224. Office of the Press Secretary, The White House (January 23, 2017), Presidential Memorandum Regarding Withdrawal of the United States from the Trans-Pacific Partnership Negotiations and Agreement, <https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/23/presidential-memorandum-regarding-withdrawal-united-states-trans-pacific>; Peter Baker, Trump Abandons Trans-Pacific Partnership, Obama’s Signature Trade Deal, The New York Times (January 23, 2017), <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/23/us/politics/tpp-trump-trade-nafta.html.The New York Times>; see Divesh Kaul, Trans-Pacific Partnership Trump(ed): Was TPP That Bad an Acronym in New US Trade Terminology?, 27 Tulane Journal of International & Comparative Law (2018-19).

  225. Divesh Kaul, Trans-Pacific Partnership Trump(ed), The Citizen(March 06, 2017), <https://www.thecitizen.in/index.php/en/NewsDetail/index/4/10090/Trans-Pacific-Partnership-Trumped> (TPP’s text dealt with provisions related to inter alia market access for goods and services, labor standards and environmental commitments, groundbreaking rules to ensure fair competition between state-owned enterprises and private companies, improved transparency commitments for small and medium sized businesses, intellectual property rights protection, and obligations to promote an open internet and a thriving digital economy).

  226. Eric Bradner, Trump’s TPP Withdrawal: 5 Things to Know, CNN (January 23, 2017), available at <https://www.cnn.com/2017/01/23/politics/trump-tpp-things-to-know/index.html>; Rosalind Mathieson, Pacific Nations Scramble to Save TPP after Trump’s Exit, Bloomberg(November 9, 2017), available at <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-11-09/still-no-deal-for-nations-looking-to-save-tpp-after-trump-s-exit>; Mireya Solís, Trump Withdrawing from the Trans-Pacific Partnership, Brookings(March 24, 2017), available at <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/unpacked/2017/03/24/trump-withdrawing-from-the-trans-pacific-partnership/>.

  227. Matthew P. Goodman, From TPP to CPTPP, Center for Strategic & International Studies(March 8, 2018), <https://www.csis.org/analysis/tpp-cptpp>; What on Earth is the CPTPP, The Economist (March 12, 2018), <https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/03/12/what-on-earth-is-the-cptpp> (CPTPP is pretty much similar to the original TPP text with two-thirds of the CPTPP’s 30 chapters identical to TPP).

  228. Wally Adeyemo, Protectionism is Rising the World Over. Our Best Defense is Fighting Inequality, The Guardian (April 21, 2017), available at <https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/apr/21/protectionism-is-rising-the-world-over-our-best-defense-is-fighting-inequality>.

  229. Amanda Taub, Brexit, Explained: 7 Questions about What it Means and Why it Matters, The New York Times(June 20, 2016), available at <https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/21/world/europe/brexit-britain-eu-explained.html>; A Background Guide to “Brexit” from the European Union, The Economist(February 24, 2016), available at <https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2016/02/24/a-background-guide-to-brexit-from-the-european-union>; Alex Hunt & Brian Wheeler, Brexit: All You Need to Know about the UK Leaving the EU, BBC (September 27, 2018), available at <https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-32810887> (a brief discourse on the British exit from the European Union).

  230. Adeyemo, supra note 228; Daniel Ben-Ami, World Trade: Is Protectionism on the Rise, IPE (February 2017), available at <https://www.ipe.com/investment/briefing-investment/world-trade-is-protectionism-on-the-rise/www.ipe.com/investment/briefing-investment/world-trade-is-protectionism-on-the-rise/10017403>.

  231. Ashley Kirk, Protectionism is on the Rise as US and EU Implement Thousands of Restrictive Trade Measures, The Telegraph (November 28, 2017), available at <https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2017/11/28/mapped-protectionism-rise-us-eu-implement-thousands-restrictive/>.

  232. Provisional Measures Order of October 3, 2018, of the ICJ, Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations, and Consular Rights (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America), <https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/175/175-20181003-ORD-01-00-EN.pdf>; Lawrence Hill-Cawthorne, The ICJ’s Provisional Measures Order in Alleged Violations of the 1955 Treaty (Iran v United States), Blog of the European Journal of International Law (October 3, 2018), <https://www.ejiltalk.org/the-icjs-provisional-measures-order-in-alleged-violations-of-the-1955-treaty-iran-v-united-states/>.

  233. James Freeman, Trump Makes a Deal, Wall Street Journal (October 1, 2018), <https://www.wsj.com/articles/trump-makes-a-deal-1538426266?mod=searchresults&page=2&pos=5>; Analysts Split on NAFTA Revamp’s Impact on Auto Supply Chains, International Trade Daily/Bloomberg BNA (October 3, 2018) <https://www.bloomberglaw.com/product/blaw/document/X9QACV34000000?bc=W1siU2VhcmNoIFJlc3VsdHMiLCIvcHJvZHVjdC9ibGF3L3NlYXJjaC9yZXN1bHRzLzU1Yzk1OTljMTQwY2Q1YjZiMzRiMzNjNThmODhiY2I4Il1d--1b37e26f2498077a092a2219dc83b6c4d97ba612&guid=8212c94f-9130-489b-ae64-64cadba3f391&search32=NmoA_uot2mw2CZeUh745BQ%3D%3DLSTFAMr12GAoLAlCRt1Vm0FzurScDFKoR51UtmN90asgJ7qSiSBDZyBEy6i9lohS9opt08dWm4GeSY0RyqqM8B28ON2dV01t3RnlSbGJesDf7EjqWPXrEFKHrHx7fHl9>.

  234. A New Nafta Relief, Wall Street Journal (October 1, 2018), <https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-new-nafta-relief-1538436923?mod=searchresults&page=3&pos=2>.

  235. Greg Ip, New Nafta Shows Limits of ‘America First,’ Wall Street Journal (October 3, 2018), <https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-nafta-shows-limits-of-america-first-1538568001?mod=searchresults&page=1&pos=9>.

  236. Freeman, supra note 233; A New Nafta Relief, supra note 234; Geoffrey Gertz, 5 Things to Know about USMCA, the New NAFTA, Brookings(October 2, 2018) <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2018/10/02/5-things-to-know-about-usmca-the-new-nafta/>.

  237. Freeman, supra note 233; A New Nafta Relief, supra note 234; Bob Davis, U.S. Pivots to China, With Nafta Deal in Hand, Wall Street Journal(October 1, 2018); NAFTA Update has Both Carrots, Sticks for Logging Industry, International Trade Daily/Bloomberg BNA(October 3, 2018) <https://www.bloomberglaw.com/document/X6BUEC3C000000?bc=W1siU2VhcmNoIFJlc3VsdHMiLCIvc2VhcmNoL3Jlc3VsdHMvMTg3MDdmZDUwYjQxNjg4YjcxMTljNzI2YmIxZmExYzgiXV0--f2683523ff3a23372b6effbad99dbe7a8f414c64&guid=2c374ba4-bd72-46ef-8fe9-2a03ba0ea7bf&search32=5k01DGoyle6aJ3cJKu4jKA%3D%3DxPceWGd54yLVcgfONbGBn3-7xkaMobcYFrZj-5lbEAXDtMLX0Hdwl3qPFWPSeWEDKDyhMontos4YYWiu6wQMLpy0ZqQy07GWcl4dfmXYGRO9R2Z4CGPrzp0vYpKd6gCs>.

  238. Canada Wins on Dispute Settlement System in NAFTA Revamp, International Trade Daily/Bloomberg BNA(October 2, 2018) <https://www.bloomberglaw.com/product/blaw/document/XPJJ6AK000000?bc=W1siU2VhcmNoIFJlc3VsdHMiLCIvcHJvZHVjdC9ibGF3L3NlYXJjaC9yZXN1bHRzLzU1Yzk1OTljMTQwY2Q1YjZiMzRiMzNjNThmODhiY2I4Il1d--1b37e26f2498077a092a2219dc83b6c4d97ba612&guid=8212c94f-9130-489b-ae64-64cadba3f391&search32=NmoA_uot2mw2CZeUh745BQ%3D%3DLSTFAMr12GAoLAlCRt1Vm0FzurScDFKoR51UtmN90asgJ7qSiSBDZyBEy6i9lohS9opt08dWm4GeSY0RyqqM8B28ON2dV01t3RnlSbGJesDf7EjqWPXrEFKHrHx7fHl9>; Gustavo Flores-Macías & Mariano Sánchez-Talanquer, Worse than Nafta, The New York Times(October 1, 2018) <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/opinion/worse-than-nafta.html>.

  239. A New Nafta Relief, supra note 234; Jacob M. Schlesinger, New Nafta Shows Trump’s Trade Strategy for Balancing Labor, Business Interests, Wall Street Journal (October 1, 2018) <https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-nafta-shows-trumps-trade-strategy-for-balancing-labor-business-interests-1538386203?mod=searchresults&page=4&pos=13>; William Mauldin, Ten Things to Know about the Nafta Deal, Wall Street Journal (Updated October 1, 2018), <https://www.wsj.com/articles/ten-things-to-know-about-the-new-nafta-deal-1538365823?mod=searchresults&page=3&pos=5>.

  240. A New Nafta Relief, supra note 234.

  241. Jacob M. Schlesinger, New Nafta Shows Trump’s Trade Strategy for Balancing Labor, Business Interests, Wall Street Journal (October 1, 2018) <https://www.wsj.com/articles/new-nafta-shows-trumps-trade-strategy-for-balancing-labor-business-interests-1538386203?mod=searchresults&page=4&pos=13>; Greg Ip, supra note 235; NAFTAUpdate has Both Carrots, Sticks for Logging Industry, supra note 237.

  242. Jacob M. Schlesinger, supra note 241; Big Banks Claim Victory on Data in New NAFTA Agreement (1), International Trade Daily/Bloomberg BNA(October 3, 2018) <https://www.bloomberglaw.com/document/X3HNT0R0000000?bc=W1siU2VhcmNoIFJlc3VsdHMiLCIvc2VhcmNoL3Jlc3VsdHMvMTg3MDdmZDUwYjQxNjg4YjcxMTljNzI2YmIxZmExYzgiXV0--f2683523ff3a23372b6effbad99dbe7a8f414c64&guid=2c374ba4-bd72-46ef-8fe9-2a03ba0ea7bf&search32=5k01DGoyle6aJ3cJKu4jKA%3D%3DxPceWGd54yLVcgfONbGBn3-7xkaMobcYFrZj-5lbEAXDtMLX0Hdwl3qPFWPSeWEDKDyhMontos4YYWiu6wQMLpy0ZqQy07GWcl4dfmXYGRO9R2Z4CGPrzp0vYpKd6gCs>.

  243. Jacob M. Schlesinger, supra note 241.

  244. Amiti Sen, TPP Rules Could Spell Disaster for India’s Free Trade Pacts, Business Line(January 28, 2018) <https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/macro-economy/tpp-rules-could-spell-disaster-for-indias-free-trade-pacts/article22544036.ece>.

  245. NAFTA Update has Both Carrots, Sticks for Logging Industry, International Trade Daily/Bloomberg BNA(October 3, 2018) <https://www.bloomberglaw.com/document/X6BUEC3C000000?bc=W1siU2VhcmNoIFJlc3VsdHMiLCIvc2VhcmNoL3Jlc3VsdHMvMTg3MDdmZDUwYjQxNjg4YjcxMTljNzI2YmIxZmExYzgiXV0--f2683523ff3a23372b6effbad99dbe7a8f414c64&guid=2c374ba4-bd72-46ef-8fe9-2a03ba0ea7bf&search32=5k01DGoyle6aJ3cJKu4jKA%3D%3DxPceWGd54yLVcgfONbGBn3-7xkaMobcYFrZj-5lbEAXDtMLX0Hdwl3qPFWPSeWEDKDyhMontos4YYWiu6wQMLpy0ZqQy07GWcl4dfmXYGRO9R2Z4CGPrzp0vYpKd6gCs>.

  246. See Andreas Buser, Justiciability of Security Exceptions in the US Steel (and other) Disputes: Some Middle-Ground Options and the Requirements of Article XXI lit. b(i)-(iii), EJIL Talk (November 20, 2018) <https://www.ejiltalk.org/justiciability-of-security-exceptions-in-the-us-steel-and-other-disputes-some-middle-ground-options-and-the-requirements-of-article-xxi-lit-b-i-iii/> (detailing the US-Certain Measures on Steel and Aluminium Products case).

  247. Swaminathan S. Anklesaria Aiyar, The New US-Mexico-Canada Agreement has Grim Implications for India, The Economic Times(updated October 10) <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/view-the-new-us-mexico-canada-agreement-has-grim-implications-for-india/articleshow/66139654.cms>.

  248. Ibid.

  249. Ibid.

  250. Jim Tankersley, Trump Just Ripped Up Nafta. Here’s What’s in the New Deal, The New York Times(October 1, 2018) <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/business/trump-nafta-usmca-differences.html>.

  251. See US-China Trade War, The Independent, <https://www.independent.co.uk/topic/us-china-trade-war?CMP=ILC-refresh>; Paul Wiseman & Martin Crutsinger, Trump Escalates Trade War with Beijing, Imposing Tariffs on $200 Bn Worth of Chinese Goods, The Independent (September 18, 2018) <https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/donald-trump-china-trade-war-tariffs-dates-goods-imports-a8542291.html>; Caitlin Morrison, China Plans to Slap Tariffs on $60 Bn Worth of US Imports, The Independent (August 03, 2018) <https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/china-us-trade-war-tariffs-imports-trump-latest-a8476241.html>; Xiaoqing Pi, China is Paying for Most of Trump’s Trade War, Research Says, Bloomberg(November 19, 2018) <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-11-19/china-is-paying-for-most-of-trump-s-trade-war-research-says>; US-China Trade Row: What has Happened So Far?, BBC (September 18, 2018) <https://www.bbc.com/news/business-44529600>; David Dollar, The Future of the U.S.-China Trade War, Brookings(July 09, 2018) <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2018/07/09/the-future-of-the-u-s-china-trade-war/>; Mark Landler, Trump Has Put the U.S. and China on the Cusp of a New Cold War, The New York Times (September 19, 2018) <https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/19/us/politics/trump-china-trade-war.html> (describing the diverse discourses on the US-China trade conundrums).

  252. USMCA Draft, Chapter 32.10 (Non-Market Country FTA) <https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/files/agreements/FTA/USMCA/32%20Exceptions%20and%20General%20Provisions.pdf>.

  253. David Lawder, Trade Pact Clause Seen Deterring China Trade Deal with Canada, Mexico, Reuters (October 02, 2018) <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-trade-nafta-china/trade-pact-clause-seen-deterring-china-trade-deal-with-canada-mexico-idUSKCN1MC305>; Mike Blanchfield, China Attacks Provision of New USMCA Deal Said to be Aimed at Beijing, Financial Post (last updated October 05, 2018) <https://business.financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/trudeau-affirms-china-trade-aspirations-after-usmcas-non-market-requirement>.

  254. Edward Helmore, Trump: US Will Quit World Trade Organization unless it “Shapes Up”, Bloomberg (August 30, 2018) <https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/aug/30/trump-world-trade-organization-tariffs-stock-market>; Rachel Brewster, Trump is Breaking the WTO. Will China Want to Save it?, The Washington Post (May 02, 2018) <https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/05/02/trump-is-breaking-the-wto-will-china-want-to-save-it/?utm_term=.5bc4ecafb83b>; Tom Miles, Trump Threats, Demands Spark ‘Existential Crisis’ at WTO, Reuters (October 24, 2018) <https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-wto-insight/trump-threats-demands-spark-existential-crisis-at-wto-idUSKCN1MY12F> (the U.S. has consistently accused China of dumping cheap goods by unfairly benefiting from government subsidies. The US calls for tighter rules on government subsidies of exports, state-owned firms and the forced transfer of technology from foreign partners. In addition, the US wants an end on how countries including China assign themselves a ‘developing’ country tag for lenient treatment and provisions).

  255. Aiyar, supra note 247.

  256. USMCA Draft Article 34.7, <https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/files/agreements/FTA/USMCA/34%20Final%20Provisions.pdf>.

  257. USMCA Draft Article 34.7.

  258. Aiyar, supra note 247.

  259. Pathik Das Choudhary, The New US-Mexico-Canada Agreement has Grim Implications for India, IPR Conference Blog (October 10, 2018) <https://www.iprconference.com/blog/the-new-us-mexico-canada-agreement-has-grim-implications-for-india/>;

  260. Freeman, supra note 233.

  261. Choudhary, supra note 259.

  262. Raj Bhala, India at 71: Can India Fill a China Trade Gap?, Bloomberg Quint (August 13, 2018) <https://www.bloombergquint.com/opinion/india-at-71-can-india-fill-a-china-trade-gap#gs.EzIbkW0>; Ankit Panda, The CPTPP Trade Agreement Will Enter into Force on December 30, The Diplomat (November 01, 2018) <https://thediplomat.com/2018/11/the-cptpp-trade-agreement-will-enter-into-force-on-december-30/>.

  263. Countries Move to Ratify TPP-11, The Economist (July 09, 2018) <http://www.eiu.com/industry/article/886927272/countries-move-to-ratify-tpp-11/2018-07-09>.

  264. Julia Gregory, Britain Exploring Membership of the TPP to Boost Trade after Brexit, The Guardian(January 03, 2018) <https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2018/jan/03/britain-in-talks-to-join-the-tpp-to-boost-trade-after-brexit>; UK to Consult Public on Possible Bid to Join Pacific Trade Pact, Reuters(July 18, 2018) <https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-trade/uk-to-consult-public-on-possible-bid-to-join-pacific-trade-pact-idUKKBN1K8286>; CPTPP Countries to Start Accession Talks for New Members in 2019, Voice of Vietnam(July 20, 2018) <https://english.vov.vn/economy/cptpp-countries-to-start-accession-talks-for-new-members-in-2019-379467.vov>; CPTPP Keeps Door Open to New Members, The Straits Times (March 10, 2018) <https://www.straitstimes.com/world/cptpp-keeps-door-open-to-new-members> (other countries that have showed interest include Thailand, Indonesia, Colombia, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka).

  265. Salvatore Babones, Trump May Join the New TPP, But Only Because the Old One was Gutted, Forbes(April 13, 2018) <https://www.forbes.com/sites/salvatorebabones/2018/04/13/trump-may-join-the-new-tpp-but-only-because-the-old-one-was-gutted/#2a6c1bf8584b>.

  266. Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4), <https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/trade/free-trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements-in-force/p4/>.

  267. The Canada-India FTA is currently under negotiations, <http://international.gc.ca/trade-commerce/trade-agreements-accords-commerciaux/agr-acc/india-inde/fta-ale/info.aspx?lang=eng>; Government of Canada portal, <http://international.gc.ca/world-monde/india-inde/relations.aspx?lang=eng> ; Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, <http://mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Canada_October_2017.pdf>; India-Canada Trade Likely to Double in Three Years, The Economic Times (February 23, 2018) (detailing trade and investment ties) <https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-canada-trade-likely-to-double-in-three-years-phd-chamber-of-commerce/articleshow/63048096.cms>.

  268. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India, <https://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Mexico-India_Relations_October_2017.pdf>; Embassy of India in Mexico, <https://www.indembassy.org/eoi.php?id=G1tn1NrzK>; Indian Trade Portal, Ministry of Commerce and Industry – Government of India, <http://www.indiantradeportal.in/vs.jsp?lang=0&id=0,25,45,858,915,972>.

  269. Baybars Karacaovali & Deveraux Talagi, International Trade Effects of a Potentially Revived Trans-Pacific Partnership for North America, 5:3 Journal of Political Economy (2018) 321, 324.

  270. Desierto, supra note 87, 372-82.

  271. Ibid., 374 (in contrast to ASEAN investment treaties that contain exceptions clauses following GATT Articles XX (General Exceptions) and XXI (Security Exceptions)).

  272. Antonia Eliason, Development and Regional Trade Agreements: Entrenching Structural Inequities, 46 Georgia Journal of International & Comparative Law (2018) 635, 640.

  273. Ibid.

  274. Ibid.

  275. Ibid., 641; B Chimni, Third World Approaches, supra note 159, passim.

  276. Chimni, Third World Approaches, supra note 159, passim; Eliason, supra note 272, 641-42 (2018) (citing B. S. Chimni, International Law and World Order: A Critique of Contemporary Approaches 2nd ed (CUP, New York, 2017) 78).

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Kaul, D. Evolving trade undercurrents at the regional level: tides of India’s preferential trading in the Indian Ocean and beyond. Indian Journal of International Law 58, 353–397 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40901-019-00094-9

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