Abstract
Water represents an essential resource for survival. However, growing concern within communities is arising due to elevated demand and increasing apprehensions about the scarcity of rural water resources. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of water accessibility on water conservation practices, determinants of water conservation practices among rural households, and the effects of water conservation on rural households’ livelihood, focusing on food security and household income, with comparisons made across those who practice water conservation and those who do not. The study was undertaken in the Mvomero district, Morogoro region in Tanzania, using a cross-sectional research design from October 2022 to December 2022. Through a two-stage sampling technique, primary data were collected from 490 households in the Mvomero district. Structural equation modeling (SEM), multivariate probit, simple probit, and robust ordinary least square models were employed for analysis. The SEM results indicate that agricultural productivity significantly influences water conservation (p < 0.01), as does sustainable water supply (p < 0.01). Additionally, water accessibility significantly influences rural communities’ participation in water conservation practices (p < 0.01) and environmental sustainability (p < 0.01), while government regulations influence water accessibility (p < 0.01). Results on the determinants of water conservation practices have shown that water quality, education, occupation, water proximity, and location of residence across wards significantly determine their choice of water conservation practices. Furthermore, results from probit and robust ordinary least square models have shown that earth dams significantly increase food security (p < 0.05) and income (p < 0.1), while water banks and guttering influence food security (p < 0.01) and income (p < 0.01), respectively. Unlike rooftop catchment, which significantly influences income (p < 0.05) alone, guttering influences food security (p < 0.1) and income (p < 0.1). Therefore, this study signifies that water accessibility and water conservation practices used by rural households significantly influence rural household livelihood (food security and income). Moreover, the study emphasizes that water tanks were the most preferable water conservation practice in rural areas, followed by rooftop catchment systems. The study recommends that policymakers prioritize investing in water infrastructure while encouraging households to participate in rural water resource conservation, which will help make the water resource more sustainable and beneficial for societal development.
Similar content being viewed by others
Availability of data
Data and all materials will be available upon reasonable request.
References
Abdul-Rahim AS, Sun C, Noraida AW (2018) The impact of soil and water conservation on agricultural economic growth and rural poverty reduction in China. Sustainability 2018(10):4444. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124444
Aikowe JO, Mazancová J (2021) Barriers to water access in rural communities: examining the factors influencing water source choice. Water 13(19):2755. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13192755
Ali A, Rahut DB, Mottaleb KA (2018) Improved water-management practices and their impact on food security and poverty: empirical evidence from rural Pakistan. Water Policy 20(4):692–711. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2018.044
Amadou T (2020) Comparative study between gender bias in household water conservation and management in Commune of Pelengana. J Resour Dev Manag. https://doi.org/10.7176/jrdm/63-05
Amos CC, Ahmed A, Rahman A (2020) Sustainability in water provision in rural communities: the feasibility of a village scale rainwater harvesting scheme. Water Resour Manag 34:4633–4647. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-020-02679-1
Andualem Z, Dagne H, Azene ZN, Taddese AA, Dagnew B, Fisseha R, Muluneh AG, Yeshaw Y (2021) Households access to improved drinking water sources and toilet facilities in Ethiopia: a multilevel analysis based on 2016 Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. BMJ Open. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042071
Apipoonyanon C, Kuwornu JKM, Szabo S, Shrestha RP (2020) Factors influencing household participation in community forest management: evidence from Udon Thani Province, Thailand. J Sustain Forest 39(2):184–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2019.1632211
Aprile MC, Fiorillo D (2017) Water conservation behavior and environmental concerns: evidence from a representative sample of Italian individuals. J Clean Prod 159:119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.036
Araya F, Osman K, Spearing L, Faust KM (2019) Water conservation in the household: the implications of metrics and the association between characteristics and presence of conservation. Growing With Youth, Montreal, Canada. June 12–June 15, 2019, CON901-CON9010. https://csce.ca/elf/apps/CONFERENCEVIEWER/conferences/2019/pdfs/PaperPDFversion_88_0422010602.pdf. Accessed 13 Jan 2022
Armah FA, Ekumah B, Yawson DO, Odoi JO, Afitiri AR, Nyieku FE (2018) Access to improved water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa in a quarter century. Heliyon. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00931
Bernier Q, Sultana P, Bell AR, Ringler C (2016) Water management and livelihood choices in southwestern Bangladesh. J Rural Stud 45:134–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2015.12.017
Bossio D, Geheb K, Critchley W (2010) Managing water by managing land: addressing land degradation to improve water productivity and rural livelihoods. Agric Water Manag 97:536–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2008.12.001
Cochran WG (1977) Sampling techniques, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York
Dube K (2016) Implications of rural irrigation schemes on household economy. A case of Lower Gweru Irrigation Scheme, Zimbabwe. S Afr J Agric Ext 44(1):75–90. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2016/v44n1a371
Garcia-Cuerva L, Berglund EZ, Binder AR (2016) Public perceptions of water shortages, conservation behaviors, and support for water reuse in the U.S. Resour Conserv Recycl 113:106–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.06.006
Gashu D, Demment MW, Stoecker BJ (2019) Challenges and opportunities to the African agriculture and food systems. Afr J Food Agric Nutr Dev 19(1):14190–14217. https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.84.BLFB2000
Gouais AL, Wach E (2013) A qualitative analysis of rural water sector policy documents. Walter Altern 6(3):439–461
Hannibal B, Sansom L, Portney KE (2019) The effect of local water scarcity and drought on water conservation behaviors. Environ Sociol 5(3):294–307. https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2018.1519882
Hewett CJ, Hope R (2002) A multi-disciplinary approach to assessing the effects of water and land use policy on livelihoods. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08d2740f0b649740016a4/R7937a.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2023
Hoeve E, Koppen B (2005) Beyond fetching water for livestock: a gendered sustainable livelihood framework to assess livestock-water productivity. https://www.musgroup.net/sites/default/files/6e32de142a670c5b947bbb8a680f598d.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2023
Iftikhar A, Farid N, Nawaz S (2021) Water conservation attitude of residents of Rawalpindi. Glob Soc Sci Rev VI(II):38–53. https://doi.org/10.31703/gssr.2021(vi-ii).05
Jha S, Kaechele H, Sieber S (2019) Factors influencing the adoption of water conservation technologies by smallholder farmer households in Tanzania. Water (switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/W11122640
Juma M, Juma FB (2018) Challenges of water accessibility in peri-urban areas in Tanzania: a case of Kigamboni Dar es Salaam Said Nuhu. J Soc Sci Res 4(3):47–54
Kabogo JE, Anderson EP, Hyera P, Kajanja G (2017) Facilitating public participation in water resources management: reflections from Tanzania. Ecol Soc. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-09739-220426
Khan MI, Naaz S (2018) The role of water and hygiene project of Integrated Regional Support Programme (IRSP) in district swabi, khyber pakhtunkhwa. Sociol Int J 2(4):327–333. https://doi.org/10.15406/sij.2018.02.00066
Kibuika FM, Wanyoike D (2012) Assessment of factors affecting sustainability of rural water supply schemes in Nyandarua County, Kenya: a case of Kangui water scheme. Int J Sci Res (IJSR) 3:578–584
Kimaro J (2019) A review on managing agroecosystems for improved water use efficiency in the face of changing climate in Tanzania. Adv Meteorol. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/9178136
Kitchaicharoen J, Ekasingh B, Dithaprayoon S, Chaiwinit W (2008) Linkages between access to irrigation water and livelihood strategies using sustainable livelihood framework. http://www.mcc.cmu.ac.th/Seminar/pdf/1517.pdf. Accessed 22 Dec 2023
Koop SHA, Van Dorssen AJ, Brouwer S (2019) Enhancing domestic water conservation behaviour: a review of empirical studies on influencing tactics. J Environ Manag 247(June):867–876. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.126
Kumar P, Srivastava S, Banerjee A, Banerjee S (2022) Prevalence and predictors of water-borne diseases among elderly people in India: evidence from longitudinal ageing study in India, 2017–18. BMC Public Health. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13376-6
Lameck E, Sesabo J, Mkuna E (2021) Household behaviour towards water conservation activities in Mvomero District in Tanzania: a convergent parallel mixed approach. Sustain Water Resour Manag. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-021-00514-y
Li Y, Wang B, Cui M (2022) Environmental concern, environmental knowledge, and residents’ water conservation behavior: evidence from China. Water (switzerland) 14(2087):1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14132087
Lyatuu JM, Tuni TA, Kilawe CJ (2023) Factors influencing community’s adoption of domestic water conservation measures in Moshi Rural District, Tanzania. Sustain Water Resour Manag 9:184. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-023-00970-8
Mackay CML, Schmitt MT (2019) Do people who feel connected to nature do more to protect it? A meta-analysis. J Environ Psychol 65:101323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101323
Madias K, Szymkowiak A (2022) Residential sustainable water usage and water management: systematic review and future research. Water 14(7):1027. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14071027
Maduku DK (2021) Water conservation campaigns in an emerging economy: how effective are they? Int J Advert 40(3):452–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2020.1780060
Mahoo H, Simukanga L, Kashaga RAL (2015) Water resources management in Tanzania: identifying research gaps and needs and recommendations for a research agenda. Tanzania J Agric Sci 14(1):57–77
Manríquez-Betanzos JC, Corral-Verdugo V, Vanegas-Rico MC, Fraijo-Sing BS, Tapia-Fonllem CO (2016) Positive (gratitude, eudaimonia) and negative (scarcity, costs) determinants of water conservation behaviour. Psyecology 7(2):178–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/21711976.2016.1149986
Merrey DJ, Drechsel P, de Vries FWTP et al (2005) Integrating “livelihoods” into integrated water resources management: taking the integration paradigm to its logical next step for developing countries. Reg Environ Change 5:197–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-004-0088-5
Minnes S, Vodden K (2017) The capacity gap: understanding impediments to sustainable drinking water systems in rural Newfoundland and Labrador. Can Water Resour J Revue Canadienne Des Ressources Hydriques 42(2):163–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/07011784.2016.1256232
Mlaba K (2022) Water scarcity in Africa: everything you need to know. Global Citizen. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/water-scarcity-in-africa-explainer-what-to-know/
Mojid MA, Mainuddin M (2021) Water-saving agricultural technologies: regional hydrology outcomes and knowledge gaps in the Eastern Gangetic Plains—a review. Water 2021(13):636. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13050636
Mulwa F, Li Z, Fangninou FF (2021) Water scarcity in Kenya: current status, challenges and future solutions. Open Access Libr J 8:1–15. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107096
Naika R (2022) Water management in rural communities: a step towards achieving sustainability by 2030. Sustain Water Resour Manag 8:115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00702-4
Nephawe N, Mwale M, Zuwarimwe J, Tjale MM (2021) The impact of water-related challenges on rural communities food security initiatives. AGRARIS J Agribus Rural Dev Res 7(1):13–23
Nikolopoulou K (2022) What is nonresponse bias? | Definition & example. https://www.scribbr.com/research-bias/nonresponse-bias/. Accessed 21 Dec 2023
Obeta MC (2018) Rural water supply in Nigeria: policy gaps and future directions. Water Policy 20(3):597–616. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2018.129
Omotayo AO, Olagunju KO, Omotoso AB, Ogunniyi AI, Otekunrin OA, Daud AS (2021) Clean water, sanitation and under-five children diarrhea incidence: empirical evidence from the South Africa’s General Household Survey. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28(44):63150–63162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15182-w
City Population (2023) The population development of Mvomero. https://www.citypopulation.de/en/tanzania/admin/morogoro/0506__mvomero/. Accessed 12 May 2023
Prince M (2012) 9—Epidemiology. In: Wright P, Stern J, Phelan M (eds) Core psychiatry, 3rd edn. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 115–129
Recanati F, Castelletti A, Dotelli G, Melià P (2017) Trading off natural resources and rural livelihoods. A framework for sustainability assessment of small-scale food production in water-limited regions. Adv Water Resour 110:484–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2017.04.024
Rosinger AY, Young SL (2020) The toll of household water insecurity on health and human biology: current understandings and future directions. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 7(6):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1468
Saha S, Chakma N, Sam K (2023) Responses of rural livelihood with limited access to water resources: a case from water-scarce region of West Bengal, India. Environ Dev Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03996-2
Sara J, Katz T (1997) Making rural water supply sustainable: recommendations from a global study Washington, DC: UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/495261468135922056/pdf/331050global1ruralreport.pdf. Accessed 28 Dec 2023
Shunglu R, Köpke S, Kanoi L, Nissanka TS, Withanachchi CR, Gamage DU, Dissanayake HR, Kibaroglu A, Ünver O, Withanachchi SS (2022) Barriers in participative water governance: a critical analysis of community development approaches. Water (switzerland) 14:762. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14050762
Sikka AK (2009) Exploring options of participatory water management for livelihood improvements in the Indo-Gangetic Basin. Int J River Basin Manag 7(2):147–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2009.9635377
Singha B, Eljamal O (2021) Exploring attitudes and household culture to encourage water conservation behavior. Proc Int Exch Innov Conf Eng Sci (IEICES) 7:149–154. https://doi.org/10.5109/4738581
Soliman A, Jha SK (2023) Closing the access gap for water and sanitation in Eastern and Southern Africa: raising the ambition. https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/closing-access-gap-water-and-sanitation-eastern-and-southern-africa-raising-ambition. Accessed 27 June 2023
Strauch AM, Almedom AM (2011) Traditional water resource management and water quality in rural Tanzania. Hum Ecol 39:93–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-011-9376-0
Swanson M, Sample A, Bruyere B (2021) Understanding barriers and challenges for women’s access to water in Northern Rwanda. J Gend Water 8(1):102–112
Theodory TF (2022) Emerging and persistent challenges on water resources governance in rural Tanzania: the Mgeta subcatchment of the Upper Ruvu Basin. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift nor J Geogr. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2022.2048067
Warner LA, Diaz JM (2021) Amplifying the theory of planned behavior with connectedness to water to inform impactful water conservation program planning and evaluation. J Agric Educ Extens 27(2):229–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2020.1844771
Wescoat JL (2014) Searching for comparative international water research: urban and rural water conservation research in India and the United States. Water Altern 7(1):199–219
Wood EA, Douglas H, Fiore AJ, Bernier R, Chapman KS (2019) Perceptions of water insecurity from urban and peri-urban Haiti: a quantitative analysis. PLoS ONE 14(4):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0214789
World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (2023) Water scarcity. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/water-scarcity. Accessed 18 Dec
Yator S, Kwasira J (2020) Effect of water technological factors on water accessibility among residents of Baringo North. Int J Acade Res Bus Soc Sci. https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v10-i10/7943
Young SL (2021) Viewpoint: the measurement of water access and use is key for more effective food and nutrition policy. Food Policy 104:102138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2021.102138
Funding
The funds of the study were provided by Rural Water and Sanitation Authority (RUWASA).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
FAK took charge of manuscript preparation, conducted analyses, and interpreted the results. TFT played a crucial role by offering feedback and insightful suggestions to enhance the work. The final version of the manuscript underwent thorough review and approval by all authors.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests.
Ethical approval
Ethical approval for this study was obtained from MVOMERO DISTRICT COUNCIL with Reference MVDCD.30/15/VII-VL/192.
Consent to participate
Verbal informed consent was obtained from all subjects before the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix 1: Monthly average temprature in Mvomero district
Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Maximum | 36 °C | 35 °C | 34 °C | 32 °C | 31 °C | 30 °C | 29 °C | 31 °C | 32 °C | 34 °C | 35 °C | 34 °C |
(98 °F) | (95 °F) | (93 °F) | (91 °F) | (87 °F) | (86 °F) | (84 °F) | (89 °F) | (90 °F) | (93 °F) | (96°F) | (94 °F) | |
Mean maximum | 34 °C | 33 °C | 33 °C | 31 °C | 29 °C | 28 °C | 28 °C | 29 °C | 31 °C | 33 °C | 33 °C | 33 °C |
(93 °F) | (92 °F) | (92 °F) | (88 °F) | (85 °F) | (83 °F) | (83 °F) | (85 °F) | (88 °F) | (91 °F) | (91 °F) | (92 °F) | |
Average high | 31 °C | 31 °C | 30 °C | 28 °C | 27 °C | 27 °C | 26 °C | 27 °C | 29 °C | 30 °C | 30 °C | 31 °C |
(88 °F) | (88 °F) | (87 °F) | (83 °F) | (80 °F) | (80 °F) | (80 °F) | (82 °F) | (84 °F) | (85 °F) | (87 °F) | (88 °F) | |
Daily mean | 26 °C | 26 °C | 25 °C | 24 °C | 23 °C | 22 °C | 21 °C | 22 °C | 23 °C | 24 °C | 25 °C | 26 °C |
(78 °F) | (78 °F) | (78 °F) | (75 °F) | (73 °F) | (72 °F) | (71 °F) | (72 °F) | (74 °F) | (76 °F) | (77 °F) | (78 °F) | |
Average low | 22 °C | 22 °C | 22 °C | 21 °C | 20 °C | 17 °C | 17 °C | 17 °C | 18 °C | 20 °C | 21 °C | 22 °C |
(72 °F) | (72 °F) | (71 °F) | (71 °F) | (68 °F) | (64 °F) | (62 °F) | (63 °F) | (65 °F) | (68 °F) | (70 °F) | (72 °F) | |
Mean minimum | 21 °C | 19 °C | 20 °C | 20 °C | 17 °C | 15 °C | 14 °C | 15 °C | 16 °C | 17 °C | 19 °C | 20 °C |
(69 °F) | (67 °F) | (67 °F) | (68 °F) | (63 °F) | (59 °F) | (57 °F) | (58 °F) | (61 °F) | (62 °F) | (66 °F) | (68 °F) | |
Minimum | 19 °C | 18 °C | 19 °C | 20 °C | 16 °C | 13 °C | 12 °C | 14 °C | 15 °C | 16 °C | 17 °C | 19 °C |
(67 °F) | (65 °F) | (66 °F) | (67 °F) | (60 °F) | (55 °F) | (54 °F) | (58 °F) | (59 °F) | (60 °F) | (64 °F) | (67 °F) |
Appendix 2: Monthly average weather condition for Mvomero district
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Theodory, T.F., Kitole, F.A. Does rural water resource outcry elevate communities’ conservation for livelihoods in a pooled resource? A case of Mvomero district, Morogoro region, Tanzania. Sustain. Water Resour. Manag. 10, 81 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-024-01070-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-024-01070-x