Abstract
Our study investigates the diversification and fragmentation theses, fueled by claims that greater diversity is reshaping the social fabric of American life and that the United States is an increasingly fragmented nation. We take a multidimensional view of heterogeneity that considers whether growing ethnoracial diversity within U.S. communities (i.e., incorporated and unincorporated places) has resulted in the consolidation or differentiation of demographic, sociocultural, and economic distinctions between 1980 and 2010. As communities have become more ethnoracially diverse, they have become more heterogeneous in language and nativity—two characteristics tied closely to Latino and Asian population growth. However, ethnoracial diversity within communities is only weakly associated with household, age, educational, occupational, or income heterogeneity despite large racial/ethnic differences in these characteristics nationally. This trend does not apply to all forms of ethnoracial diversity equally: Hispanic and especially Asian population growth is more likely to generate community sociodemographic and economic heterogeneity than is black population growth. Consistent with the fragmentation hypothesis, we also find that broader geographic context matters, with more ethnoracially diverse metropolitan and micropolitan areas experiencing reduced social and economic heterogeneity inside their constituent places. We conclude by discussing the social implications of these patterns for intergroup relations, spatial exclusion, and ethnoracial inequality.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Nonwhite population growth does not always lead to greater ethnoracial diversity, particularly if a place is already majority nonwhite. However, about three-quarters of incorporated and unincorporated places were majority non-Hispanic white in 1980 (Hall et al. 2016), so white population loss and nonwhite population growth at the place level since 1980 have usually led to greater ethnoracial diversity.
The ACS estimates for some communities have large margins of error. Following Spielman et al. (2014), we computed coefficients of variation and assessed the sensitivity of our results to the inclusion of places with low-reliability estimates (coefficient of variation > 40). Our results are robust to excluding these places.
Places that were excluded in 1980 because they did not meet the population threshold were less racially diverse on average than our analytic sample. Newly created places (1990 or later) tended to be less ethnoracially diverse than existing places, but they also became more diverse over time. Sensitivity analyses show that the results are robust to these two sample restrictions.
We computed a ratio of the 2010 to 1980 area size of each place (in square miles) to determine which places had lost land, remained stable, or annexed land during the observation period. Mean 1980 and 2010 diversity levels were quite similar across the shrinking, stable, and expanding categories of places. In Table A2 of the online appendix, we also reran our main analysis on the sample of stable places and found results that are substantively and statistically similar to those using the full sample.
Supplemental analyses indicated that the associations between nonracial diversity and other forms of population heterogeneity were similar in magnitude for large principal cities and other types of places with smaller populations (results available in the online appendix, Table A3).
The results of this supplemental analysis indicate that changes in racial diversity and nonracial population heterogeneity are strongest in places that start with low levels of racial diversity in 1980 and are weaker in places with high levels of starting racial diversity.
Although theoretically distinct, the nominal and ordinal entropy scores are highly correlated for our ordinal measures. The results we present are robust to our use of either nominal or ordinal entropy scores to measure diversity for the ordered measures of diversity.
In supplemental analyses presented in Table A4 of the online appendix, we also examined a set of models that used lagged measures of ethnoracial diversity to predict subsequent changes in nonracial heterogeneity. These results were generally statistically significant although of somewhat smaller magnitude than the results presented here.
Changes in non-Hispanic white population shares are negatively correlated with changes in the shares of other racial/ethnic groups, but population changes among nonwhite racial/ethnic groups are very weakly correlated (r < .1).
Unfortunately, the Census Bureau did not publish detailed tabulations by race or ethnicity (STF2 and STF4) prior to 2000, which are needed to construct measures of within racial/ethnic group heterogeneity at the place level.
References
Abascal, M., & Baldassarri, D. (2015). Love thy neighbor? Ethnoracial diversity and trust reexamined. American Journal of Sociology, 121, 722–782.
Alba, R., & Nee, V. (2003). Remaking the American mainstream: Assimilation and contemporary immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Alba, R. D., & Logan, J. R. (1991). Variations on two themes: Racial and ethnic patterns in the attainment of suburban residence. Demography, 28, 431–453.
Alba, R. D., & Logan, J. R. (1993). Minority proximity to whites in suburbs: An individual-level analysis of segregation. American Journal of Sociology, 98, 1388–1427.
Alba, R. D., Logan, J. R., & Stults, B. J. (2000). The changing neighborhood contexts of the immigrant metropolis. Social Forces, 79, 587–621.
Alesina, A., Baqir, R., & Easterly, W. (1999). Public goods and ethnic divisions. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114, 1243–1284.
Alesina, A., & La Ferrara, E. (2002). Who trusts others? Journal of Public Economics, 85, 207–234.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Ananat, E. O. (2011). The wrong side(s) of the tracks: The causal effects of racial segregation on urban poverty and inequality. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(2), 34–66.
Bader, M. D. M., & Krysan, M. (2015). Community attraction and avoidance in Chicago: What’s race got to do with it? Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 660, 261–281.
Bishop, B. (2008). The big sort: Why the clustering of like-minded America is tearing us apart. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.
Blau, P. M. (1977). Inequality and heterogeneity. New York, NY: Free Press.
Blau, P. M. (1994). Structural contexts of opportunities. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Blau, P. M., Beeker, C., & Fitzpatrick, K. M. (1984). Intersecting social affiliations and intermarriage. Social Forces, 62, 585–606.
Blau, P. M., & Schwartz, J. E. (1984). Crosscutting social circles. Orlando, FL: Academic.
Blum, T. C. (1985). Structural constraints on interpersonal relations: A test of Blau’s macrosociological theory. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 511–521.
Browning, C., & Soller, B. (2014). Moving beyond neighborhood: Activity spaces and ecological networks as contexts for youth development. Cityscape, 16(1), 165–196.
Buchanan, P. J. (2011). Suicide of a superpower: Will America survive to 2025? New York, NY: Macmillan.
Card, D. (2005). Is the new immigration really so bad? Economic Journal, 115, F300–F323.
Carr, P. J., Lichter, D. T., & Kefalas, M. J. (2012). Can immigration save small-town America? Hispanic boomtowns and the uneasy path to renewal. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 641, 38–57.
Charles, C. Z. (2003). The dynamics of racial residential segregation. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 167–207.
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014). Where is the Land of Opportunity? The geography of intergenerational mobility in the United States. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 129, 1553–1623.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Colby, S. L., & Ortman, J. M. (2015). Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. population: 2014 to 2060 (Current Population Reports, No. P25-1143). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
Costa, D. L., & Kahn, M. E. (2003). Civic engagement and community heterogeneity: An economist’s perspective. Perspectives on Politics, 1, 103–111.
Crowder, K., & South, S. J. (2005). Race, class, and changing patterns of migration between poor and nonpoor neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 110, 1715–1763.
Crowder, K., & South, S. J. (2008). Spatial dynamics of white flight: The effects of local and extralocal racial conditions on neighborhood out-migration. American Sociological Review, 73, 792–812.
DiMaggio, P., Evans, J., & Bryson, B. (1996). Have Americans’ social attitudes become more polarized? American Journal of Sociology, 102, 690–755.
Domina, T. (2006). Brain drain and brain gain: Rising educational segregation in the United States, 1940–2000. City & Community, 5, 387–407.
Farley, R., Steeh, C., Krysan, M., Jackson, T., & Reeves, K. (1994). Stereotypes and segregation: Neighborhoods in the Detroit area. American Journal of Sociology, 100, 750–780.
Farrell, C. R. (2008). Bifurcation, fragmentation, or integration? The racial and geographic structure of U.S. metropolitan segregation, 1990–2000. Urban Studies, 45, 467–499.
Farrell, C. R., & Lee, B. A. (2011). Racial diversity and change in metropolitan neighborhoods. Social Science Research, 40, 1108–1123.
Figlio, D., & Fletcher, D. (2012). Suburbanization, demographic change, and the consequences for school finances. Journal of Public Economics, 96, 1144–1153.
Fiorina, M., & Abrams, S. (2008). Political polarization in the American public. Annual Review of Political Science, 11, 563–588.
Fischer, C. S., & Hout, M. (2006). Century of difference: How America changed in the last one hundred years. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Fischer, C. S., & Mattson, G. (2009). Is America fragmenting? Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 435–455.
Fischer, C. S., Stockmayer, G., Stiles, J., & Hout, M. (2004). Distinguishing the geographic levels and social dimensions of U.S. metropolitan segregation, 1960–2000. Demography, 41, 37–59.
Fong, T. P. (2008). The contemporary Asian American experience: Beyond the model minority (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice-Hall.
Fossett, M. A., & Kiecolt, K. J. (1989). The relative size of minority populations and white racial attitudes. Social Science Quarterly, 70, 820–835.
Freeman, L. (2002). Does spatial assimilation work for black immigrants in the US? Urban Studies, 39, 1983–2003.
Freeman, L. (2009). Neighborhood diversity, metropolitan segregation and gentrification: What are the links in the US? Urban Studies, 46, 2079–2101.
Frey, W. H. (1995). Immigration and internal migration “flight” from U.S. metropolitan areas: Toward a new demographic balkanization. Urban Studies, 32, 733–757.
Frey, W. H. (2011a). Melting pot cities and suburbs: Racial and ethnic change in metro America in the 2000s (State of Metropolitan America Series report). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Frey, W. H. (2011b). The new metro minority map: Regional shifts in Hispanics, Asians, and Blacks from Census 2010 (State of Metropolitan America Series report). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
Frey, W. H. (2015). Diversity explosion: How new racial demographics are remaking America. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F., Anastasio, P. A., Bachman, B. A., & Rust, M. C. (1996). The contact hypothesis: The role of common ingroup identity on reducing intergroup bias among majority and minority members. In J. L. Nye & A. M. Brower (Eds.), What’s social about social cognition? (pp. 230–260). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Galster, G., & Booza, J. (2007). The rise of the bipolar neighborhood. Journal of the American Planning Association, 73, 421–435.
Garip, F. (2008). Social capital and migration: How do similar resources lead to divergent outcomes? Demography, 45, 591–617.
Gelman, A. (2009). Red state, blue state, rich state, poor state: Why Americans vote the way they do. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gieryn, T. F. (2000). A space for place in sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 463–496.
Goyette, K., Iceland, J., & Weininger, E. (2014). Moving for the kids: Examining the influence of children on white residential segregation. City & Community, 13, 158–178.
Habecker, S. (2012). Not black, but Habasha: Ethiopian and Eritrean immigrants in American society. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35, 1200–1219.
Hall, M. (2013). Residential integration on the new frontier: Immigrant segregation in established and new destinations. Demography, 52, 1873–1896.
Hall, M., Crowder, K., & Spring, A. (2015). Neighborhood foreclosures, racial/ethnic transitions, and residential segregation. American Sociological Review, 80, 526–549.
Hall, M., & Hibel, J. (2017). Latino students and white migration from school districts, 1980–2010. Social Problems, 64, 457–475.
Hall, M., Iceland, J., & Yi, Y. (2019). Racial separation at home and work: Segregation in residential and workplace settings. Population Research and Policy Review. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-019-09510-9
Hall, M., & Lee, B. A. (2010). How diverse are US suburbs? Urban Studies, 47, 3–28.
Hall, M., Tach, L., & Lee, B. A. (2016). Trajectories of ethnoracial diversity in American communities, 1980–2010. Population and Development Review, 42, 271–297.
Hipp, J. R. (2007). Income inequality, race, and place: Does the distribution of race and class within neighborhoods affect crime rates? Criminology, 45, 665–697.
Holloway, S. R., Wright, R., & Ellis, M. (2012). The racially fragmented city? Neighborhood racial segregation and diversity jointly considered. Professional Geographer, 64, 63–82.
Hopkins, D. J. (2009). The diversity discount: When increasing ethnic and racial diversity prevents tax increases. Journal of Politics, 71, 160–177.
Hopkins, D. J. (2010). Politicized places: Explaining where and when immigrants provoke local opposition. American Political Science Review, 104, 40–60.
Hopkins, D. J., Tran, V. C., & Fisher Williamson, A. (2014). See no Spanish: Language, local context, and attitudes toward immigration. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 2, 35–51.
Huntington, S. P. (2005). Who are we: The challenges to America's national identity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Iceland, J. (2004). Beyond black and white: Metropolitan residential segregation in multi-ethnic America. Social Science Research, 33, 248–271.
Iceland, J. (2017). Race and ethnicity in America. Oakland: University of California Press.
Jargowsky, P. A. (2015). Architecture of segregation: Civil unrest, the concentration of poverty, and public policy. New York, NY: Century Foundation.
Johnson, K. M., & Lichter, D. T. (2010). Growing diversity among America’s children and youth: Spatial and temporal dimensions. Population and Development Review, 36, 151–175.
Jones, M., & Pebley, A. R. (2014). Redefining neighborhoods using common destinations: Social characteristics of activity spaces and home census tracts compared. Demography, 51, 727–752.
Klinkner, P. A. (2004). Red and blue scare: The continuing diversity of the American electoral landscape. Forum, 2(2), 1–10.
Krysan, M., Couper, M. P., Farley, R., & Forman, T. (2009). Does race matter in neighborhood preferences? Results from a video experiment. American Journal of Sociology, 115, 527–559.
Lauman, E. O. (1973). Bonds of pluralism: The form and substance of urban networks. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons.
Lee, B. A., Iceland, J., & Farrell, C. R. (2014). Is ethnoracial integration on the rise? Evidence from metropolitan and micropolitan America since 1980. In J. R. Logan (Ed.), Diversity and disparities: America enters a new century (pp. 415–456). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Lee, B. A., Martin, M. J. R., & Hall, M. (2017). Solamente Mexicanos? Patterns and sources of Hispanic diversity in U.S. metropolitan areas. Social Science Research, 68, 117–131.
Lee, B. A., & Sharp, G. (2017). Ethnoracial diversity across the rural-urban continuum. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 672, 26–45.
Lee, J., & Bean, F. (2004). America’s changing color lines: Immigration, race/ethnicity, and multiracial identification. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 221–242.
Lichter, D. T. (2012). Immigration and the new racial diversity in rural America. Rural Sociology, 77, 3–35.
Lichter, D. T. (2013). Integration or fragmentation? Racial diversity and the American future. Demography, 50, 359–391.
Lichter, D. T., Parisi, D., Grise, S. M., & Taquino, M. (2007). Municipal underbounding: Annexation and racial exclusion in small southern towns. Rural Sociology, 72, 4–68.
Lichter, D. T., Parisi, D., & Taquino, M. (2015). Toward a new macro-segregation? Decomposing segregation within and between cities and suburbs. American Sociological Review, 80, 843–847.
Lieberson, S. (1980). A piece of the pie: Blacks and white immigrants since 1880. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Logan, J. R., & Alba, R. D. (1993). Locational returns to human capital: Minority access to suburban community resources. Demography, 30, 243–268.
Logan, J. R., & Molotch, H. (1987). Urban fortunes: The political economy of place. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Logan, J. R., and & Stults, B. J. (2011). The persistence of segregation in the metropolis: New findings from the 2010 census (US2010 Project Report, March). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.russellsage.org/sites/all/files/US2010/US2010_Logan_20110324.pdf
Logan, J. R., & Zhang, C. (2010). Global neighborhoods: New pathways to diversity and separation. American Journal of Sociology, 115, 1069–1109.
Luttmer, E. F. P. (2001). Group loyalty and the taste for redistribution. Journal of Political Economy, 109, 500–528.
Mackun, P. J., & Wilson, S. (2011). Population distribution and change: 2000 to 2010 (Census Briefs, No. C2010BR-01). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
Maly, M. (2008). Beyond segregation: Multiracial and multiethnic neighborhoods. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Marrow, H. (2011). New destination dreaming: Immigration, race, and legal status in the rural American south. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
Marrow, H. (2013). Assimilation in new destinations. Daedalus, 142(3), 107–122.
Martin, M. J. R., & Fowler, C. S. (2018). Connecting the dots: The spatial processes underlying place-level diversity change in U.S. metros between 1990 and 2010. Spatial Demography, 6, 141–157.
Massey, D. S. (1985). Ethnic residential segregation: A theoretical synthesis and empirical review. Sociology and Social Research, 69, 315–350.
Massey, D. S. (1996). The age of extremes: Concentrated affluence and poverty in the twenty-first century. Demography, 33, 395–412.
Massey, D. S. (Ed.). (2008). New faces in new places: The changing geography of American immigration. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1988). The dimensions of residential segregation. Social Forces, 67, 281–315.
Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Massey, D. S., Mooney, M., Torres, K. C., & Charles, C. Z. (2007). Black immigrants and black natives attending selective colleges and universities in the United States. American Journal of Education, 113, 243–271.
Massey, D. S., Rothwell, J., & Domina, T. (2009). The changing bases of segregation in the United States. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 626, 74–90.
Matthews, S. A. (2011). Spatial polygamy and the heterogeneity of place: Studying people and place via egocentric methods. In L. Burton, S. Kemp, M. Leung, S. A. Matthews, & D. Takeuchi (Eds.), Communities, neighborhoods, and health: Expanding the boundaries of place (pp. 35–55). New York, NY: Springer.
Mayer, S. E. (2001). How did the increase in economic inequality affect educational attainment? American Journal of Sociology, 107, 1–32.
Meissner, F., & Vertovec, S. (2015). Comparing super-diversity. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38, 541–555.
Moody, J. (2001). Race, school integration, and friendship segregation in America. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 679–716.
Murray, C. (2012). Coming apart: The state of white America, 1960–2010. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press.
Nyden, P., Maly, M., & Lukehart, J. (1997). The emergence of stable racially and ethnically diverse urban communities: A case study of nine US cities. Housing Policy Debate, 8, 491–534.
Owens, A. (2016). Inequality in children’s contexts: Income segregation of households with and without children. American Sociological Review, 81, 549–574.
Pager, D., & Shepherd, H. (2008). The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 181–209.
Parisi, D., Lichter, D. T., & Taquino, M. C. (2015). The buffering hypothesis: Growing diversity and declining black-white segregation in America’s cities, suburbs, and small towns? Sociological Science, 2, 125–157.
Pendall, R. (2000). Local land use regulation and the chain of exclusion. Journal of the American Planning Association, 66, 125–142.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2000). Does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Recent meta-analytic findings. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 93–114). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2006). Immigrant America: A portrait (3rd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Portes, A., & Truelove, C. (1987). Making sense of diversity: Recent research on Hispanic minorities in the United States. Annual Review of Sociology, 13, 359–385.
Portes, A., & Vickstrom, E. (2011). Diversity, social capital, and cohesion. Annual Review of Sociology, 37, 461–479.
Poterba, J. M. (1997). Demographic structure and the political economy of public education. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 16, 48–66.
Poterba, J. M. (1998). Demographic change, intergenerational linkages, and public education. American Economic Review: Papers & Proceedings, 88, 315–320.
Putnam, R. D. (2007). E pluribus unum: Diversity and community in the twenty-first century. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30, 137–174.
Quillian, L. (1999). Migration patterns and the growth of high-poverty neighborhoods, 1970–1990. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 1–37.
Quillian, L. (2012). Segregation and poverty concentration: The role of three segregations. American Sociological Review, 77, 354–379.
Quillian, L. (2014). Does segregation create winners and losers? Residential segregation and inequality in educational attainment. Social Problems, 61, 402–426.
Reardon, S. F., & Bischoff, K. (2011). Income inequality and income segregation. American Journal of Sociology, 116, 1092–1153.
Reardon, S. F., Firebaugh, G., O’Sullivan, D., & Matthews, S. (2006, August). A new approach to measuring socio-spatial economic segregation. Paper presented at the 29th General Conference of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, Joensuu, Finland.
Rieder, J., & Steinlight, S. (Eds.). (2003). The fractious nation: Unity and division in contemporary American life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Rosenbaum, E., & Friedman, S. R. (2007). The housing divide: How generations of immigrants fare in New York’s housing market. New York: NYU Press.
Rothwell, J., & Massey, D. S. (2009). The effect of density zoning on racial segregation in U.S. urban areas. Urban Affairs Review, 44, 779–806.
Rugh, J. S., & Massey, D. S. (2013). Segregation in post-civil rights America: Stalled integration or end of the segregated century? Du Bois Review, 10(2), 1–28.
Sampson, R. J. (1984). Group size, heterogeneity, and intergroup conflict: A test of Blau’s inequality and heterogeneity. Social Forces, 62, 618–639.
Sharkey, P. (2013). Stuck in place: Urban neighborhoods and the end of progress toward racial equality. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Singer, A., Hardwick, S. W., & Brettell, C. B. (Eds.). (2008). Twenty-first century gateways: Immigrant incorporation in suburban America. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Smith, J. A., McPherson, M., & Smith-Lovin, L. (2014). Social distance in the United States: Sex, race, religion, age, and education homophily among confidants, 1985 to 2004. American Sociological Review, 79, 432–456.
South, S. J., & Crowder, K. (1997). Escaping distressed neighborhoods: Individual, community, and metropolitan influences. American Journal of Sociology, 102, 1040–1084.
South, S. J., Crowder, K., & Pais, J. (2008). Inter-neighborhood migration and spatial assimilation in a multi-ethnic world. Social Forces, 87, 415–443.
South, S. J., & Messner, S. F. (1986). Structural determinants of intergroup association: Interracial marriage and crime. American Journal of Sociology, 91, 1409–1430.
Spielman, S. E., Folch, D., & Nagle, N. (2014). Patterns and causes of uncertainty in the American Community Survey. Applied Geography, 46, 147–157.
Stein, R., Post, S., & Rinden, A. (2000). Reconciling context and contact effects on racial attitudes. Political Research Quarterly, 53, 285–303.
Tach, L. (2014). Diversity, inequality, and microsegregation: Dynamics of inclusion and exclusion in a racially and economically diverse community. Cityscape, 16(3), 13–45.
Taylor, M. C. (1998). How white attitudes vary with the racial composition of local populations: Numbers count. American Sociological Review, 63, 512–535.
Tittle, C. R., & Rotolo, T. (2010). Socio-demographic homogenizing trends within fixed-boundary spatial areas in the United States. Social Science Research, 39, 324–340.
Turner, M. A., & Ross, S. L. (2005). How racial discrimination affects the search for housing. In X. de Souza Briggs (Ed.), The geography of opportunity: Race and housing choice in metropolitan America (pp. 81–101). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Van Hook, J., & Snyder, J. (2007). Immigration, ethnicity, and the loss of white students from California public schools, 1990–2000. Population Research and Policy Review, 26, 259–277.
Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30, 1024–1054.
Vesselinov, E., Cazessus, M., & Falk, W. (2007). Gated communities and spatial inequality. Journal of Urban Affairs, 29, 109–127.
Waters, M. C. (1994). Ethnic and racial identities of second-generation black immigrants in New York City. International Migration Review, 28, 795–820.
Waters, M. C. (2000). Black identities: West Indian immigrant dreams and American realities. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Waters, M. C., & Gerstein Pineau, M. (Eds.). (2015). The integration of immigrants into American society. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
White, M. J. (1986). Segregation and diversity measures in population distribution. Population Index, 52, 198–221.
Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (1995). US socioeconomic and racial differences in health: Patterns and explanations. Annual Review of Sociology, 21, 349–386.
Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.
Wilson, W. J., & Taub, R. P. (2006). There goes the neighborhood: Racial, ethnic, and class tensions in four Chicago neighborhoods and their meaning for America. New York, NY: Vintage.
Winders, J. (2013). Nashville in the new millennium: Immigrant settlement, urban transformation, and social belonging. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Wright, R., Ellis, M., Holloway, S. R., & Wong, S. (2014). Patterns of racial diversity and segregation in the United States: 1990–2010. Professional Geographer, 66, 173–182.
Wuthnow, R. (1989). The restructuring of American religion: Society and faith since World War II. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Yinger, J. (1995). Closed doors, opportunities lost: The continuing costs of housing discrimination. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
Acknowledgments
Support for this research has been provided by a grant from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD074605). Additional support comes from the Population Research Institute of Penn State University, which receives infrastructure funding from NICHHD (P2CHD041025). The content of this article is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not reflect the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The authors thank Chad Farrell, Chris Fowler, Matthew Hall, Stephen Matthews, and Gregory Sharp for feedback on this article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(PDF 809 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tach, L., Lee, B., Martin, M. et al. Fragmentation or Diversification? Ethnoracial Change and the Social and Economic Heterogeneity of Places. Demography 56, 2193–2227 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00835-w
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00835-w