Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, microvesicles and apoptotic bodies, participate in intercellular communication, and particularly, in paracrine and endocrine signalling. The EVs and their specific contents have been considered hallmarks of different diseases. It has been recently discovered that EVs can co-transport nucleic acids such as DNAs, ribosomal RNAs, circular RNAs (circRNAs), long noncoding RNAs (lnRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). miRNAs are important regulators of gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, although they may also play other roles. Recent evidence supports the hypothesis that miRNAs can activate Toll-like receptors (TLRs) under certain circumstances. TLRs belong to a multigene family of immune system receptors and have been recently described in the nervous system. In the immune system, TLRs are important for the recognition of the invading microorganisms, whereas in the nervous system, they recognise endogenous ligands released by undifferentiated or necrotic/injured cells. In the neuronal disease field, TLRs activity has been associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. Herein, we reviewed the current knowledge of the relationship between miRNA release by EVs and the inflammation signalling triggered by TLRs in neighbouring cells or during long-distance cell-to-cell communication. We highlight novel aspects of this communication mechanism, offering a valuable insight into such pathways in health and disease.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Kihara AH, Santos TO, Osuna-Melo EJ, Paschon V, Vidal KS, Akamine PS, Castro LM, Resende RR, Hamassaki DE, Britto LR (2010) Connexin-mediated communication controls cell proliferation and is essential in retinal histogenesis. Int J Dev Neurosci 28(1):39–52
Paschon V, Higa GS, Resende RR, Britto LR, Kihara AH (2012) Blocking of connexin-mediated communication promotes neuroprotection during acute degeneration induced by mechanical trauma. PLoS One 7(9):e45449
Theis M, Sohl G, Eiberger J, Willecke K (2005) Emerging complexities in identity and function of glial connexins. Trends Neurosci 28(4):188–195
Sohl G, Maxeiner S, Willecke K (2005) Expression and functions of neuronal gap junctions. Nat Rev Neurosci 6(3):191–200
Corriden R, Insel PA (2010) Basal release of ATP: an autocrine-paracrine mechanism for cell regulation. Sci Signal 3(104):re1
Le-Corronc H, Rigo JM, Branchereau P, Legendre P (2011) GABA (A) receptor and glycine receptor activation by paracrine/autocrine release of endogenous agonists: more than a simple communication pathway. Mol Neurobiol 44(1):28–52
Ogorevc E, Kralj-Iglic V, Veranic P (2013) The role of extracellular vesicles in phenotypic cancer transformation. Radiol Oncol 47(3):197–205
Vader P, Breakefield XO, Wood MJ (2014) Extracellular vesicles: emerging targets for cancer therapy. Trends Mol Med 20(7):385–393
Gupta A, Pulliam L (2014) Exosomes as mediators of neuroinflammation. J Neuroinflammation 11(1):68
Simons M, Raposo G (2009) Exosomes—vesicular carriers for intercellular communication. Curr Opin Cell Biol 21(4):575–581
Gyorgy B, Szabo TG, Pasztoi M, Pal Z, Misjak P, Aradi B, Laszlo V, Pallinger E, Pap E, Kittel A et al (2011) Membrane vesicles, current state-of-the-art: emerging role of extracellular vesicles. Cell Mol Life Sci CMLS 68(16):2667–2688
Sustar V, Bedina-Zavec A, Stukelj R, Frank M, Ogorevc E, Jansa R, Mam K, Veranic P, Kralj-Iglic V (2011) Post-prandial rise of microvesicles in peripheral blood of healthy human donors. Lipids Health Dis 10:47
Xin H, Li Y, Cui Y, Yang JJ, Zhang ZG, Chopp M (2013) Systemic administration of exosomes released from mesenchymal stromal cells promote functional recovery and neurovascular plasticity after stroke in rats. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab Off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow and Metab 33(11):1711–1715
Record M, Carayon K, Poirot M, Silvente-Poirot S (2014) Exosomes as new vesicular lipid transporters involved in cell-cell communication and various pathophysiologies. Biochim Biophys Acta 1841(1):108–120
Faure C, Nallet F, Roux D, Milner ST, Gauffre F, Olea D, Lambert O (2006) Modeling leakage kinetics from multilamellar vesicles for membrane permeability determination: application to glucose. Biophys J 91(12):4340–4349
Lachenal G, Pernet-Gallay K, Chivet M, Hemming FJ, Belly A, Bodon G, Blot B, Haase G, Goldberg Y, Sadoul R (2011) Release of exosomes from differentiated neurons and its regulation by synaptic glutamatergic activity. Mol Cell Neurosci 46(2):409–418
Yang X, Weng Z, Mendrick DL, Shi Q (2014) Circulating extracellular vesicles as a potential source of new biomarkers of drug-induced liver injury. Toxicol Lett 225(3):401–406
Cheng L, Sun X, Scicluna BJ, Coleman BM, Hill AF (2013) Characterization and deep sequencing analysis of exosomal and non-exosomal miRNA in human urine. Kidney Int 86(2):433–444
Graves LE, Ariztia EV, Navari JR, Matzel HJ, Stack MS, Fishman DA (2004) Proinvasive properties of ovarian cancer ascites-derived membrane vesicles. Cancer Res 64(19):7045–7049
Admyre C, Grunewald J, Thyberg J, Gripenback S, Tornling G, Eklund A, Scheynius A, Gabrielsson S (2003) Exosomes with major histocompatibility complex class II and co-stimulatory molecules are present in human BAL fluid. Eur Respir J 22(4):578–583
Vojtech L, Woo S, Hughes S, Levy C, Ballweber L, Sauteraud RP, Strobl J, Westerberg K, Gottardo R, Tewari M et al (2014) Exosomes in human semen carry a distinctive repertoire of small non-coding RNAs with potential regulatory functions. Nucleic Acids Res 42(11):7290–7304
Melnik BC, John SM, Schmitz G (2014) Milk: an exosomal microRNA transmitter promoting thymic regulatory T cell maturation preventing the development of atopy? J Transl Med 12(1):43
Ogawa Y, Kanai-Azuma M, Akimoto Y, Kawakami H, Yanoshita R (2008) Exosome-like vesicles with dipeptidyl peptidase IV in human saliva. Biol Pharm Bull 31(6):1059–1062
Fruhbeis C, Frohlich D, Kramer-Albers EM (2012) Emerging roles of exosomes in neuron-glia communication. Front Physiol 3:119
Von Bartheld CS, Altick AL (2011) Multivesicular bodies in neurons: distribution, protein content, and trafficking functions. Prog Neurobiol 93(3):313–340
Kramer-Albers EM, Bretz N, Tenzer S, Winterstein C, Mobius W, Berger H, Nave KA, Schild H, Trotter J (2007) Oligodendrocytes secrete exosomes containing major myelin and stress-protective proteins: Trophic support for axons? Proteomics Clin Appl 1(11):1446–1461
Cai J, Han Y, Ren H, Chen C, He D, Zhou L, Eisner GM, Asico LD, Jose PA, Zeng C (2013) Extracellular vesicle-mediated transfer of donor genomic DNA to recipient cells is a novel mechanism for genetic influence between cells. J Mol Cell Biol 5(4):227–238
Valencia K, Luis-Ravelo D, Bovy N, Anton I, Martinez-Canarias S, Zandueta C, Ormazabal C, Struman I, Tabruyn S, Rebmann V et al (2014) miRNA cargo within exosome-like vesicle transfer influences metastatic bone colonization. Mol Oncol 8(3):689–703
Lehmann SM, Kruger C, Park B, Derkow K, Rosenberger K, Baumgart J, Trimbuch T, Eom G, Hinz M, Kaul D et al (2012) An unconventional role for miRNA: let-7 activates Toll-like receptor 7 and causes neurodegeneration. Nat Neurosci 15(6):827–835
Lespagnol A, Duflaut D, Beekman C, Blanc L, Fiucci G, Marine JC, Vidal M, Amson R, Telerman A (2008) Exosome secretion, including the DNA damage-induced p53-dependent secretory pathway, is severely compromised in TSAP6/Steap3-null mice. Cell Death Differ 15(11):1723–1733
Eirin A, Riester SM, Zhu XY, Tang H, Evans JM, O’Brien D, van Wijnen AJ, Lerman LO (2014) MicroRNA and mRNA cargo of extracellular vesicles from porcine adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Gene 551(1):55–64
Valadi H, Ekstrom K, Bossios A, Sjostrand M, Lee JJ, Lotvall JO (2007) Exosome-mediated transfer of mRNAs and microRNAs is a novel mechanism of genetic exchange between cells. Nat Cell Biol 9(6):654–659
Pigati L, Yaddanapudi SC, Iyengar R, Kim DJ, Hearn SA, Danforth D, Hastings ML, Duelli DM (2010) Selective release of microRNA species from normal and malignant mammary epithelial cells. PLoS One 5(10):e13515
Osman A (2012) MicroRNAs in health and disease—basic science and clinical applications. Clin Lab 58(5–6):393–402
Zhang Y, Liao Y, Wang D, He Y, Cao D, Zhang F, Dou K (2011) Altered expression levels of miRNAs in serum as sensitive biomarkers for early diagnosis of traumatic injury. J Cell Biochem 112(9):2435–2442
Muro EM, Mah N, Andrade-Navarro MA (2011) Functional evidence of post-transcriptional regulation by pseudogenes. Biochimie 93(11):1916–1921
Hayes CN, Akamatsu S, Tsuge M, Miki D, Akiyama R, Abe H, Ochi H, Hiraga N, Imamura M, Takahashi S et al (2012) Hepatitis B virus-specific miRNAs and Argonaute2 play a role in the viral life cycle. PLoS One 7(10):e47490
Decembrini S, Bressan D, Vignali R, Pitto L, Mariotti S, Rainaldi G, Wang X, Evangelista M, Barsacchi G, Cremisi F (2009) MicroRNAs couple cell fate and developmental timing in retina. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(50):21179–21184
Song J, Hu B, Qu H, Bi C, Huang X, Zhang M (2012) Mechanical stretch modulates microRNA 21 expression, participating in proliferation and apoptosis in cultured human aortic smooth muscle cells. PLoS One 7(10):e47657
Meunier J, Lemoine F, Soumillon M, Liechti A, Weier M, Guschanski K, Hu H, Khaitovich P, Kaessmann H (2013) Birth and expression evolution of mammalian microRNA genes. Genome Res 23(1):34–45
Da Costa Martins PA, De Windt LJ (2012) Targeting microRNA targets. Circ Res 111(5):506–508
Bartel DP (2009) MicroRNAs: target recognition and regulatory functions. Cell 136(2):215–233
Voinnet O (2009) Origin, biogenesis, and activity of plant microRNAs. Cell 136(4):669–687
Krol J, Loedige I, Filipowicz W (2010) The widespread regulation of microRNA biogenesis, function and decay. Nat Rev Genet 11(9):597–610
Carthew RW, Sontheimer EJ (2009) Origins and mechanisms of miRNAs and siRNAs. Cell 136(4):642–655
Zinovyev A, Morozova N, Gorban AN, Harel-Belan A (2013) Mathematical modeling of microRNA-mediated mechanisms of translation repression. Adv Exp Med Biol 774:189–224
Katoh T, Sakaguchi Y, Miyauchi K, Suzuki T, Kashiwabara S, Baba T, Suzuki T (2009) Selective stabilization of mammalian microRNAs by 3′ adenylation mediated by the cytoplasmic poly (A) polymerase GLD-2. Genes Dev 23(4):433–438
Kai ZS, Pasquinelli AE (2010) MicroRNA assassins: factors that regulate the disappearance of miRNAs. Nat Struct Mol Biol 17(1):5–10
de Sousa E, Walter LT, Higa GS, Casado OA, Kihara AH (2013) Developmental and functional expression of miRNA-stability related genes in the nervous system. PLoS One 8(5):e56908
Kinjo ER, Higa GS, de Sousa E, Casado OA, Damico MV, Britto LR, Kihara AH (2013) A possible new mechanism for the control of miRNA expression in neurons. Exp Neurol 248:546–558
Valiunas V, Polosina YY, Miller H, Potapova IA, Valiuniene L, Doronin S, Mathias RT, Robinson RB, Rosen MR, Cohen IS et al (2005) Connexin-specific cell-to-cell transfer of short interfering RNA by gap junctions. J Physiol 568(Pt 2):459–468
Brink PR, Valiunas V, Gordon C, Rosen MR, Cohen IS (2012) Can gap junctions deliver? Biochim Biophys Acta 1818(8):2076–2081
Higa GS, de Sousa E, Walter LT, Kinjo ER, Resende RR, Kihara AH (2014) MicroRNAs in neuronal communication. Mol Neurobiol 49(3):1309–1326
Stoorvogel W (2012) Functional transfer of microRNA by exosomes. Blood 119(3):646–648
Zernecke A, Bidzhekov K, Noels H, Shagdarsuren E, Gan L, Denecke B, Hristov M, Koppel T, Jahantigh MN, Lutgens E et al (2009) Delivery of microRNA-126 by apoptotic bodies induces CXCL12-dependent vascular protection. Sci Signal 2(100):ra81
Arroyo JD, Chevillet JR, Kroh EM, Ruf IK, Pritchard CC, Gibson DF, Mitchell PS, Bennett CF, Pogosova-Agadjanyan EL, Stirewalt DL et al (2011) Argonaute2 complexes carry a population of circulating microRNAs independent of vesicles in human plasma. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(12):5003–5008
Kosaka N, Iguchi H, Yoshioka Y, Takeshita F, Matsuki Y, Ochiya T (2010) Secretory mechanisms and intercellular transfer of microRNAs in living cells. J Biol Chem 285(23):17442–17452
Ksiazek-Winiarek DJ, Kacperska MJ, Glabinski A (2013) MicroRNAs as novel regulators of neuroinflammation. Mediators Inflamm 2013:172351
Gantier MP (2010) New perspectives in MicroRNA regulation of innate immunity. J Interf Cytokine Res off J Int Soc Interferon Cytokine Res 30(5):283–289
Quinn SR, O’Neill LA (2011) A trio of microRNAs that control Toll-like receptor signalling. Int Immunol 23(7):421–425
Taganov KD, Boldin MP, Chang KJ, Baltimore D (2006) NF-kappaB-dependent induction of microRNA miR-146, an inhibitor targeted to signaling proteins of innate immune responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(33):12481–12486
Cui JG, Li YY, Zhao Y, Bhattacharjee S, Lukiw WJ (2010) Differential regulation of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1 (IRAK-1) and IRAK-2 by microRNA-146a and NF-kappaB in stressed human astroglial cells and in Alzheimer disease. J Biol Chem 285(50):38951–38960
Medzhitov R (2001) Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 1(2):135–145
Takeda K, Akira S (2004) TLR signaling pathways. Semin Immunol 16(1):3–9
Miyake K (2007) Innate immune sensing of pathogens and danger signals by cell surface Toll-like receptors. Semin Immunol 19(1):3–10
Hashimoto C, Hudson KL, Anderson KV (1988) The Toll gene of Drosophila, required for dorsal-ventral embryonic polarity, appears to encode a transmembrane protein. Cell 52(2):269–279
Blasius AL, Beutler B (2010) Intracellular toll-like receptors. Immunity 32(3):305–315
Kawai T, Akira S (2010) The role of pattern-recognition receptors in innate immunity: update on Toll-like receptors. Nat Immunol 11(5):373–384
Benias PC, Gopal K, Bodenheimer H Jr, Theise ND (2012) Hepatic expression of toll-like receptors 3, 4, and 9 in primary biliary cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis C. Clinics Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 36(5):448–454
Gerondakis S, Grumont RJ, Banerjee A (2007) Regulating B-cell activation and survival in response to TLR signals. Immunol Cell Biol 85(6):471–475
Iwamura C, Nakayama T (2008) Toll-like receptors in the respiratory system: their roles in inflammation. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 8(1):7–13
Eriksson M, Meadows SK, Basu S, Mselle TF, Wira CR, Sentman CL (2006) TLRs mediate IFN-gamma production by human uterine NK cells in endometrium. J Immunol 176(10):6219–6224
Duan X, Kang E, Liu CY, Ming GL, Song H (2008) Development of neural stem cell in the adult brain. Curr Opin Neurobiol 18(1):108–115
Sabroe I, Whyte MK (2007) Toll-like receptor (TLR)-based networks regulate neutrophilic inflammation in respiratory disease. Biochem Soc Trans 35(Pt 6):1492–1495
Yoshimoto T, Nakanishi K (2006) Roles of IL-18 in basophils and mast cells. Allergol Int Off J Jpn Soc Allergol 55(2):105–113
Gibson FC 3rd, Ukai T, Genco CA (2008) Engagement of specific innate immune signaling pathways during Porphyromonas gingivalis induced chronic inflammation and atherosclerosis. Front Biosci J Virtual libr 13:2041–2059
Prehaud C, Megret F, Lafage M, Lafon M (2005) Virus infection switches TLR-3-positive human neurons to become strong producers of beta interferon. J Virol 79(20):12893–12904
Qi J, Buzas K, Fan H, Cohen JI, Wang K, Mont E, Klinman D, Oppenheim JJ, Howard OM (2011) Painful pathways induced by TLR stimulation of dorsal root ganglion neurons. J Immunol 186(11):6417–6426
Mishra BB, Gundra UM, Teale JM (2008) Expression and distribution of Toll-like receptors 11–13 in the brain during murine neurocysticercosis. J Neuroinflammation 5:53
Tang SC, Arumugam TV, Xu X, Cheng A, Mughal MR, Jo DG, Lathia JD, Siler DA, Chigurupati S, Ouyang X et al (2007) Pivotal role for neuronal Toll-like receptors in ischemic brain injury and functional deficits. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(34):13798–13803
Barajon I, Serrao G, Arnaboldi F, Opizzi E, Ripamonti G, Balsari A, Rumio C (2009) Toll-like receptors 3, 4, and 7 are expressed in the enteric nervous system and dorsal root ganglia. J Histochem Cytochem Off J Histochem Soc 57(11):1013–1023
Sloane JA, Batt C, Ma Y, Harris ZM, Trapp B, Vartanian T (2010) Hyaluronan blocks oligodendrocyte progenitor maturation and remyelination through TLR2. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(25):11555–11560
Lehnardt S, Henneke P, Lien E, Kasper DL, Volpe JJ, Bechmann I, Nitsch R, Weber JR, Golenbock DT, Vartanian T (2006) A mechanism for neurodegeneration induced by group B streptococci through activation of the TLR2/MyD88 pathway in microglia. J Immunol 177(1):583–592
Taylor DL, Pirianov G, Holland S, McGinnity CJ, Norman AL, Reali C, Diemel LT, Gveric D, Yeung D, Mehmet H (2010) Attenuation of proliferation in oligodendrocyte precursor cells by activated microglia. J Neurosci Res 88(8):1632–1644
Bsibsi M, Nomden A, van Noort JM, Baron W (2012) Toll-like receptors 2 and 3 agonists differentially affect oligodendrocyte survival, differentiation, and myelin membrane formation. J Neurosci Res 90(2):388–398
Jack CS, Arbour N, Manusow J, Montgrain V, Blain M, McCrea E, Shapiro A, Antel JP (2005) TLR signaling tailors innate immune responses in human microglia and astrocytes. J Immunol 175(7):4320–4330
Bsibsi M, Ravid R, Gveric D, van Noort JM (2002) Broad expression of Toll-like receptors in the human central nervous system. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 61(11):1013–1021
Carpentier PA, Begolka WS, Olson JK, Elhofy A, Karpus WJ, Miller SD (2005) Differential activation of astrocytes by innate and adaptive immune stimuli. Glia 49(3):360–374
El-Hage N, Podhaizer EM, Sturgill J, Hauser KF (2011) Toll-like receptor expression and activation in astroglia: differential regulation by HIV-1 Tat, gp120, and morphine. Immunol Invest 40(5):498–522
Cassiani-Ingoni R, Cabral ES, Lunemann JD, Garza Z, Magnus T, Gelderblom H, Munson PJ, Marques A, Martin R (2006) Borrelia burgdorferi induces TLR1 and TLR2 in human microglia and peripheral blood monocytes but differentially regulates HLA-class II expression. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 65(6):540–548
Lehnardt S, Lehmann S, Kaul D, Tschimmel K, Hoffmann O, Cho S, Krueger C, Nitsch R, Meisel A, Weber JR (2007) Toll-like receptor 2 mediates CNS injury in focal cerebral ischemia. J Neuroimmunol 190(1–2):28–33
Yoon HJ, Jeon SB, Kim IH, Park EJ (2008) Regulation of TLR2 expression by prostaglandins in brain glia. J Immunol 180(12):8400–8409
Suzuki M, Sugimoto Y, Ohsaki Y, Ueno M, Kato S, Kitamura Y, Hosokawa H, Davies JP, Ioannou YA, Vanier MT et al (2007) Endosomal accumulation of Toll-like receptor 4 causes constitutive secretion of cytokines and activation of signal transducers and activators of transcription in Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) fibroblasts: a potential basis for glial cell activation in the NPC brain. J Neurosci the Off J Soc Neurosci 27(8):1879–1891
Du M, Butchi NB, Woods T, Peterson KE (2011) Poly-thymidine oligonucleotides mediate activation of murine glial cells primarily through TLR7, not TLR8. PLoS One 6(7):e22454
Glezer I, Simard AR, Rivest S (2007) Neuroprotective role of the innate immune system by microglia. Neuroscience 147(4):867–883
McCusker RH, Kelley KW (2013) Immune-neural connections: how the immune system’s response to infectious agents influences behavior. J Exp Biol 216(Pt 1):84–98
Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Prattichizzo F, Babini L, Graciotti L, Recchioni R, Procopio AD (2013) Toll like receptor signaling in “inflammaging”: microRNA as new players. Immun Ageing I A 10(1):11
Tsai SY, Segovia JA, Chang TH, Morris IR, Berton MT, Tessier PA, Tardif MR, Cesaro A, Bose S (2014) DAMP molecule S100A9 acts as a molecular pattern to enhance inflammation during influenza A virus infection: role of DDX21-TRIF-TLR4-MyD88 pathway. PLoS Pathog 10(1):e1003848
Fang H, Ang B, Xu X, Huang X, Wu Y, Sun Y, Wang W, Li N, Cao X, Wan T (2014) TLR4 is essential for dendritic cell activation and anti-tumor T-cell response enhancement by DAMPs released from chemically stressed cancer cells. Cell Mol Immunol 11(2):150–159
Peng Y, Zhang L (2014) Activation of the TLR1/2 pathway induces the shaping of the immune response status of peripheral blood leukocytes. Exp Ther Med 7(6):1708–1712
Marsh BJ, Williams-Karnesky RL, Stenzel-Poore MP (2009) Toll-like receptor signaling in endogenous neuroprotection and stroke. Neuroscience 158(3):1007–1020
Kaczorowski DJ, Mollen KP, Edmonds R, Billiar TR (2008) Early events in the recognition of danger signals after tissue injury. J Leukoc Biol 83(3):546–552
Marsh BJ, Stevens SL, Hunter B, Stenzel-Poore MP (2009) Inflammation and the emerging role of the toll-like receptor system in acute brain ischemia. Stroke J Cereb Circ 40(3 Suppl):S34–S37
Chotirmall SH, Low TB, Hassan T, Branagan P, Kernekamp C, Flynn MG, Gunaratnam C, McElvaney NG (2011) Cystic fibrosis, common variable immunodeficiency and Aspergers syndrome: an immunological and behavioural challenge. Ir J Med Sci 180(2):607–609
O’Neill LA, Bowie AG (2007) The family of five: TIR-domain-containing adaptors in Toll-like receptor signalling. Nat Rev Immunol 7(5):353–364
Nada M, Ohnishi H, Tochio H, Kato Z, Kimura T, Kubota K, Yamamoto T, Kamatari YO, Tsutsumi N, Shirakawa M et al (2012) Molecular analysis of the binding mode of Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain proteins during TLR2 signaling. Mol Immunol 52(3–4):108–116
Ko MK, Saraswathy S, Parikh JG, Rao NA (2011) The role of TLR4 activation in photoreceptor mitochondrial oxidative stress. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 52(8):5824–5835
He X, Jing Z, Cheng G (2014) MicroRNAs: new regulators of Toll-like receptor signalling pathways. Biomed Res Int 2014:945169
Fehniger TA (2013) Extracellular microRNAs turn on NK cells via TLR1. Blood 121(23):4612–4613
He S, Chu J, Wu LC, Mao H, Peng Y, Alvarez-Breckenridge CA, Hughes T, Wei M, Zhang J, Yuan S et al (2013) MicroRNAs activate natural killer cells through Toll-like receptor signaling. Blood 121(23):4663–4671
Nahid MA, Satoh M, Chan EK (2011) Mechanistic role of microRNA-146a in endotoxin-induced differential cross-regulation of TLR signaling. J Immunol 186(3):1723–1734
Ceppi M, Pereira PM, Dunand-Sauthier I, Barras E, Reith W, Santos MA, Pierre P (2009) MicroRNA-155 modulates the interleukin-1 signaling pathway in activated human monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(8):2735–2740
Fabbri M, Paone A, Calore F, Galli R, Gaudio E, Santhanam R, Lovat F, Fadda P, Mao C, Nuovo GJ et al (2012) MicroRNAs bind to Toll-like receptors to induce prometastatic inflammatory response. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(31):E2110–E2116
Li Y, Shi X (2013) MicroRNAs in the regulation of TLR and RIG-I pathways. Cell Mol Immunol 10(1):65–71
Fabbri M, Paone A, Calore F, Galli R, Croce CM (2013) A new role for microRNAs, as ligands of Toll-like receptors. RNA Biol 10(2):169–174
Tan JY, Marques AC (2014) The miRNA-mediated cross-talk between transcripts provides a novel layer of posttranscriptional regulation. Adv Genet 85:149–199
Grasso M, Piscopo P, Confaloni A, Denti MA (2014) Circulating miRNAs as biomarkers for neurodegenerative disorders. Molecules 19(5):6891–6910
Drouin-Ouellet J, Cicchetti F (2012) Inflammation and neurodegeneration: the story ‘retolled’. Trends Pharmacol Sci 33(10):542–551
Ulrich H, do Nascimento IC, Bocsi J, Tarnok A (2014) Immunomodulation in stem cell differentiation into neurons and brain repair. Stem Cell Rev (in press)
Shastri A, Bonifati DM, Kishore U (2013) Innate immunity and neuroinflammation. Mediators Inflamm 2013:342931
Hayward CP, Moffat KA, Graf L (2014) Technological advances in diagnostic testing for von Willebrand disease: new approaches and challenges. Int J Lab Hematol 36(3):334–340
Noelker C, Morel L, Lescot T, Osterloh A, Alvarez-Fischer D, Breloer M, Henze C, Depboylu C, Skrzydelski D, Michel PP et al (2013) Toll like receptor 4 mediates cell death in a mouse MPTP model of Parkinson disease. Sci Rep 3:1393
Letiembre M, Liu Y, Walter S, Hao W, Pfander T, Wrede A, Schulz-Schaeffer W, Fassbender K (2009) Screening of innate immune receptors in neurodegenerative diseases: a similar pattern. Neurobiol Aging 30(5):759–768
Stridh L, Mottahedin A, Johansson ME, Valdez RC, Northington F, Wang X, Mallard C (2013) Toll-like receptor-3 activation increases the vulnerability of the neonatal brain to hypoxia-ischemia. J Neurosci Off J Soc Neurosci 33(29):12041–12051
Guo L, Duggan J, Cordeiro MF (2010) Alzheimer’s disease and retinal neurodegeneration. Curr Alzheimer Res 7(1):3–14
Querfurth HW, LaFerla FM (2010) Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med 362(4):329–344
Rajendran L, Honsho M, Zahn TR, Keller P, Geiger KD, Verkade P, Simons K (2006) Alzheimer’s disease beta-amyloid peptides are released in association with exosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(30):11172–11177
Vingtdeux V, Hamdane M, Loyens A, Gele P, Drobeck H, Begard S, Galas MC, Delacourte A, Beauvillain JC, Buee L et al (2007) Alkalizing drugs induce accumulation of amyloid precursor protein by-products in luminal vesicles of multivesicular bodies. J Biol Chem 282(25):18197–18205
Emmanouilidou E, Melachroinou K, Roumeliotis T, Garbis SD, Ntzouni M, Margaritis LH, Stefanis L, Vekrellis K (2010) Cell-produced alpha-synuclein is secreted in a calcium-dependent manner by exosomes and impacts neuronal survival. J Neurosci 30(20):6838–6851
Frank S, Copanaki E, Burbach GJ, Muller UC, Deller T (2009) Differential regulation of toll-like receptor mRNAs in amyloid plaque-associated brain tissue of aged APP23 transgenic mice. Neurosci Lett 453(1):41–44
Richard KL, Filali M, Prefontaine P, Rivest S (2008) Toll-like receptor 2 acts as a natural innate immune receptor to clear amyloid beta 1–42 and delay the cognitive decline in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci 28(22):5784–5793
Yu X, Wang Q, Lin Y, Zhao J, Zhao C, Zheng J (2012) Structure, orientation, and surface interaction of Alzheimer amyloid-beta peptides on the graphite. Langmuir ACS J Surf colloid 28(16):6595–6605
Ohshima K, Inoue K, Fujiwara A, Hatakeyama K, Kanto K, Watanabe Y, Muramatsu K, Fukuda Y, Ogura S, Yamaguchi K et al (2010) Let-7 microRNA family is selectively secreted into the extracellular environment via exosomes in a metastatic gastric cancer cell line. PLoS One 5(10):e13247
Cogswell JP, Ward J, Taylor IA, Waters M, Shi Y, Cannon B, Kelnar K, Kemppainen J, Brown D, Chen C et al (2008) Identification of miRNA changes in Alzheimer’s disease brain and CSF yields putative biomarkers and insights into disease pathways. J Alzheimer’s Dis JAD 14(1):27–41
Kumar P, Dezso Z, MacKenzie C, Oestreicher J, Agoulnik S, Byrne M, Bernier F, Yanagimachi M, Aoshima K, Oda Y (2013) Circulating miRNA biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease. PLoS One 8(7):e69807
Nagpal N, Kulshreshtha R (2014) miR-191: an emerging player in disease biology. Front Genet 5:99
Hebert SS, Papadopoulou AS, Smith P, Galas MC, Planel E, Silahtaroglu AN, Sergeant N, Buee L, De Strooper B (2010) Genetic ablation of Dicer in adult forebrain neurons results in abnormal tau hyperphosphorylation and neurodegeneration. Hum Mol Genet 19(20):3959–3969
Lang AE, Lozano AM (1998) Parkinson’s disease. Second of two parts. N Engl J Med 339(16):1130–1143
Lees AJ (2009) The Parkinson chimera. Neurology 72(7 Suppl):S2–S11
Reynolds AD, Kadiu I, Garg SK, Glanzer JG, Nordgren T, Ciborowski P, Banerjee R, Gendelman HE (2008) Nitrated alpha-synuclein and microglial neuroregulatory activities. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol Off J Soc NeuroImmune Pharmacol 3(2):59–74
Reynolds AD, Glanzer JG, Kadiu I, Ricardo-Dukelow M, Chaudhuri A, Ciborowski P, Cerny R, Gelman B, Thomas MP, Mosley RL et al (2008) Nitrated alpha-synuclein-activated microglial profiling for Parkinson’s disease. J Neurochem 104(6):1504–1525
Chang C, Lang H, Geng N, Wang J, Li N, Wang X (2013) Exosomes of BV-2 cells induced by alpha-synuclein: important mediator of neurodegeneration in PD. Neurosci Lett 548:190–195
Maciotta S, Meregalli M, Torrente Y (2013) The involvement of microRNAs in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Cell Neurosci 7:265
Junn E, Lee KW, Jeong BS, Chan TW, Im JY, Mouradian MM (2009) Repression of alpha-synuclein expression and toxicity by microRNA-7. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(31):13052–13057
Beraud D, Twomey M, Bloom B, Mittereder A, Ton V, Neitzke K, Chasovskikh S, Mhyre TR, Maguire-zeiss KA (2011) Alpha-synuclein alters toll-like receptor expression. Front Neurosci 5:80
Beraud E, Chandy KG (2011) Therapeutic potential of peptide toxins that target ion channels. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 10(5):322–342
Lomen-Hoerth C (2008) Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis from bench to bedside. Semin Neurol 28(2):205–211
Beers DR, Henkel JS, Xiao Q, Zhao W, Wang J, Yen AA, Siklos L, McKercher SR, Appel SH (2006) Wild-type microglia extend survival in PU.1 knockout mice with familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(43):16021–16026
Gomes C, Keller S, Altevogt P, Costa J (2007) Evidence for secretion of Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase via exosomes from a cell model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurosci Lett 428(1):43–46
Koval ED, Shaner C, Zhang P, du Maine X, Fischer K, Tay J, Chau BN, Wu GF, Miller TM (2013) Method for widespread microRNA-155 inhibition prolongs survival in ALS-model mice. Hum Mol Genet 22(20):4127–4135
Parisi C, Arisi I, D’Ambrosi N, Storti AE, Brandi R, D’Onofrio M, Volonte C (2013) Dysregulated microRNAs in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis microglia modulate genes linked to neuroinflammation. Cell Death Dis 4:e959
Zhou F, Guan Y, Chen Y, Zhang C, Yu L, Gao H, Du H, Liu B, Wang X (2013) miRNA-9 expression is upregulated in the spinal cord of G93A-SOD1 transgenic mice. Int J Clin Exp Pathol 6(9):1826–1838
Sta M, Sylva-Steenland RM, Casula M, de Jong JM, Troost D, Aronica E, Baas F (2011) Innate and adaptive immunity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: evidence of complement activation. Neurobiol Dis 42(3):211–220
Casula M, Iyer AM, Spliet WG, Anink JJ, Steentjes K, Sta M, Troost D, Aronica E (2011) Toll-like receptor signaling in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord tissue. Neuroscience 179:233–243
Zhao W, Beers DR, Henkel JS, Zhang W, Urushitani M, Julien JP, Appel SH (2010) Extracellular mutant SOD1 induces microglial-mediated motoneuron injury. Glia 58(2):231–243
Teasell R, Hussein N, McClure A, Meyer M (2014) Stroke: more than a ‘brain attack’. Int J Stroke Off J Int Stroke Soc 9(2):188–190
Ouyang Q, Zhou W, Zhang CM (2007) The key of increasing the therapeutic effect of scalp acupuncture on hemiplegia due to stroke. Zhongguo zhen jiu Chin Acupunct Moxibustion 27(10):773–776
Jickling GC, Ander BP, Zhan X, Noblett D, Stamova B, Liu D (2014) microRNA expression in peripheral blood cells following acute ischemic stroke and their predicted gene targets. PLoS One 9(6):e99283
Dharap A, Bowen K, Place R, Li LC, Vemuganti R (2009) Transient focal ischemia induces extensive temporal changes in rat cerebral microRNAome. J Cereb blood flow Metab Off J Int Soc Cereb Blood Flow Metab 29(4):675–687
Lee ST, Chu K, Jung KH, Yoon HJ, Jeon D, Kang KM, Park KH, Bae EK, Kim M, Lee SK et al (2010) MicroRNAs induced during ischemic preconditioning. Stroke J Cereb Circulation 41(8):1646–1651
Jeyaseelan K, Lim KY, Armugam A (2008) MicroRNA expression in the blood and brain of rats subjected to transient focal ischemia by middle cerebral artery occlusion. Stroke J Cereb Circulation 39(3):959–966
Liu DZ, Tian Y, Ander BP, Xu H, Stamova BS, Zhan X, Turner RJ, Jickling G, Sharp FR (2010) Brain and blood microRNA expression profiling of ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, and kainate seizures. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 30(1):92–101
Weng Q, Zhang J, Cao J, Xia Q, Wang D, Hu Y, Sheng R, Wu H, Zhu D, Zhu H et al (2011) Q39, a quinoxaline 1,4-Di-N-oxide derivative, inhibits hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha expression and the Akt/mTOR/4E-BP1 signaling pathway in human hepatoma cells. Invest New Drugs 29(6):1177–1187
Chan YC, Banerjee J, Choi SY, Sen CK (2012) miR-210: the master hypoxamir. Microcirculation 19(3):215–223
Zeng J, Sun Y, Jiang L (2011) On-line ‘automatic pilot’ training for hand and arm motor rehabilitation after stroke. Med Hypotheses 76(2):197–198
Zhang W, Winder T, Ning Y, Pohl A, Yang D, Kahn M, Lurje G, Labonte MJ, Wilson PM, Gordon MA et al (2011) A let-7 microRNA-binding site polymorphism in 3′-untranslated region of KRAS gene predicts response in wild-type KRAS patients with metastatic colorectal cancer treated with cetuximab monotherapy. Ann Oncol Off J Eur Soc Med Oncol ESMO 22(1):104–109
Diao S, Zhang JF, Wang H, He ML, Lin MC, Chen Y, Kung HF (2010) Proteomic identification of microRNA-122a target proteins in hepatocellular carcinoma. Proteomics 10(20):3723–3731
Pan W, Zhu S, Yuan M, Cui H, Wang L, Luo X, Li J, Zhou H, Tang Y, Shen N (2010) MicroRNA-21 and microRNA-148a contribute to DNA hypomethylation in lupus CD4+ T cells by directly and indirectly targeting DNA methyltransferase 1. J Immunol 184(12):6773–6781
Li Y, Liu Z, Xin H, Chopp M (2014) The role of astrocytes in mediating exogenous cell-based restorative therapy for stroke. Glia 62(1):1–16
Fadakar K, Dadkhahfar S, Esmaeili A, Rezaei N (2014) The role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in stroke. Rev Neurosci 25(5):699–712
Gesuete R, Kohama SG, Stenzel-Poore MP (2014) Toll-like receptors and ischemic brain injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 73(5):378–386
Arumugam TV, Okun E, Tang SC, Thundyil J, Taylor SM, Woodruff TM (2009) Toll-like receptors in ischemia-reperfusion injury. Shock 32(1):4–16
Mkaddem SB, Bens M, Vandewalle A (2010) Differential activation of Toll-like receptor-mediated apoptosis induced by hypoxia. Oncotarget 1(8):741–750
Leung PY, Stevens SL, Packard AE, Lessov NS, Yang T, Conrad VK, van den Dungen NN, Simon RP, Stenzel-Poore MP (2012) Toll-like receptor 7 preconditioning induces robust neuroprotection against stroke by a novel type I interferon-mediated mechanism. Stroke J Cereb Circ 43(5):1383–1389
Smiley ST, King JA, Hancock WW (2001) Fibrinogen stimulates macrophage chemokine secretion through toll-like receptor 4. J Immunol 167(5):2887–2894
Wang YC, Lin S, Yang QW (2011) Toll-like receptors in cerebral ischemic inflammatory injury. J Neuroinflammation 8:134
Cao CX, Yang QW, Lv FL, Cui J, Fu HB, Wang JZ (2007) Reduced cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in Toll-like receptor 4 deficient mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 353(2):509–514
Ziegler G, Harhausen D, Schepers C, Hoffmann O, Rohr C, Prinz V, Konig J, Lehrach H, Nietfeld W, Trendelenburg G (2007) TLR2 has a detrimental role in mouse transient focal cerebral ischemia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 359(3):574–579
Vartanian K, Stenzel-Poore M (2010) Toll-like receptor tolerance as a mechanism for neuroprotection. Transl Stroke Res 1(4):252–260
Cooper JM, Wiklander PB, Nordin JZ, Al-Shawi R, Wood MJ, Vithlani M, Schapira AH, Simons JP, El-Andaloussi S, Alvarez-Erviti L (2014) Systemic exosomal siRNA delivery reduced alpha-synuclein aggregates in brains of transgenic mice. Mov Disord 29(12):1476–1485
Kawikova I, Askenase PW (2014) Diagnostic and therapeutic potentials of exosomes in CNS diseases. Brain Res S0006-8993(14)01343–2
Funding
This work was supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP, #2014/16711-6) and Universidade Federal do ABC.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Paschon, V., Takada, S.H., Ikebara, J.M. et al. Interplay Between Exosomes, microRNAs and Toll-Like Receptors in Brain Disorders. Mol Neurobiol 53, 2016–2028 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9142-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-015-9142-1