Abstract
This article analyses discussions about music in the new public sphere of the Arab world. First, it focuses on what states do to control musical expressions and what functions religious actors have in that control. Four cases are looked into: Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Lebanon and Palestine. Then the article discusses theological arguments, in the public sphere, about music. The theologians are divided into three positions: moderates, hard-liners and liberals. It is argued that structural changes of the public sphere—especially with regards to new media and consumer culture—have caused a heated debate about music and morality. While hard-liners and moderates engage in a discussion about the legal and the forbidden in Islam, liberals stress the importance of allowing competing norms. Examples of extremist violence against musicians is discussed and contextualised.
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Notes
With the Arab world, I refer to North Africa, the Arab peninsula and the Arabic speaking countries east of the Mediterranean.
It is rumoured that al-Azhar students downloaded the adhân, the call to prayers, and Qur’anic recitation and used the sound clips as signal for their mobiles. It became so widespread that teachers banned its use. Another example is that in early November 2007, The Islamic Jurisprudence Council chaired by Saudi grand mufti Abdul Aziz al-Sheikh issued a fatwa claiming the use of Quranic recitation as ringtones for mobile telephones is un-Islamic (the madina.com 2007).
Eickelman and Anderson (2003:8f) discuss what they call new media referring to new electronic technology like phones, faxes, computers, new printing techniques etc. in contrast to conventional print and broadcasting.
Since this article is a part of a major research project in progress, I would like to draw the readers’ attention to the fact that I have relied, on several occasions, on reports given in the media without having the possibility at this stage of fully checking the accuracy of all the information. I have, of course, tried my best to double check the information.
The Iranian state has slowly changed its policies and is much more liberal today than ten years ago, but still all music must pass the censorship authorities (the Culture and Islamic Guidance Ministry) and certain restrictions are still adhered to. The most restrictive law being that a female singer is not allowed to sing solo; she has to be part of at least a duo so her voice can not be easily separated as the female voice is arousing to men, by definition.
An alternative translation is “The committee for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice”.
This organization is also named Islamic Research Academy in English.
Al-Ghazali was called to testify by the defence of one of the assassins. According to the Egyptian press covering the trial, the sheikh defended the rights of individuals to punish apostates. The most striking comment being the following reported in the newspaper al-jumhuriyya (June 23, 1993): “The killing of Farag Foda was in fact the implementation of the punishment against an apostate which the imam [i.e. the state] has failed to undertake.” I have not seen the actual transcripts of the trial.
Al Bawaba is an independent commercial company specialized in information about the Middle East.
Khaled does da‘wa, i.e. promotes Islam and invites to it, on his show. Someone who does that is a da‘i.
It is signed Amr Khaled but if its written by him, approved by him or just a text written by someone responsible for the web page of Amr Khaled, I do not know.
Sami Yusuf’s homepage (2005) has a couple of video’s on-line. The discussion forum features an interesting, non-scholarly discussion on the halal and haram of music with the general message that music is okay as long as the lyrics are not offensive. Sometimes dance music is condemned.
For typical discussions, see for example www.islamicity.com/forum; www.sunniforum.com; www.ummah.com/forum; www.groups.yahoo.com/group/islam4all.
Later, in November 2003, Dhikra Mohamed was murdered by her husband, see BBCnews (2005), homepage 2.
The attack was not an isolated incidence. Musicians, record shop owners and shops for musical instruments have been attacked or threatened in the area (aljazeera 2005, homepage 1). These attacks and threats have during 2006 spread all over the south and the central region of Iraq. According to an UN report as many as 75 singers have been murdered in Iraq during the period 2003 to 2006 and the Iraqi Artist’s Association estimates that 80% of the professional singers have left the country (Freemuse 2007b, homepage 5).
The only three exceptions being that when it comes to one’s father, husband or head of state only the two first forms are allowed to be used, see Kamali 1997:32.
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Otterbeck, J. Battling over the public sphere: Islamic reactions to the music of today. Cont Islam 2, 211–228 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-008-0062-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11562-008-0062-y