Abstract
Cross-sectional data (N = 25427) from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 2003–2014 for US adults were used to estimate the impact of co-exposure to high levels of cadmium, lead, and mercury on the unhealthy kidney function. If observed concentrations of cadmium, lead, and total mercury were above the 75th percentile of their respective distributions, the exposure to the corresponding metal was considered to be high. Logistic regression models were fitted to estimate the probabilities of an unhealthy kidney function. Two alternate definitions of unhealthy kidney function were used. First, if estimated, glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 (KeGFR) and second, if the observed albumin creatinine ratio (ACR) was ≥ 30 mg/g creatinine (KACR). As compared with low exposures, adjusted odds ratios (AOR) for unhealthy kidney function when exposed to high levels of lead and cadmium were observed to be 1.567 (1.346–1.823) and 1.663 (1.376–2.010) respectively for KeGFR. When exposed to high levels of both cadmium and lead, AORs for unhealthy kidney functions KeGFR and KARC were found to be 2.369 (1.868–3.004) and 1.522 (1.216–1.905) respectively. When exposed to high levels of cadmium, lead, and mercury, AORs for unhealthy kidney functions KeGFR and KARC were found to be 2.248 (1.428–3.538) and 1.502 (1.024–2.204) respectively. High exposure to lead along with any level of exposure to cadmium and total mercury was found to adversely affect the health of kidney function. High exposure to mercury does not affect unhealthy kidney function.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Afrifa J, Essien-Baidoo S, Ephraim RKD, Nkrumah D, Dankyira DO (2017) Reduced egfr, elevated urine protein and low level of personal protective equipment compliance among artisanal small scale gold miners at Bibiani-Ghana: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 17(1):601. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4517-z.
Alfven T, Jarup L, Elinder CG (2002) Cadmium and lead in blood in relation to low bone mineral density and tubular proteinuria. Environ Health Perspect 110:699–702
Buser MC, Ingber SZ, Raines N, Fowler DA, Scinicariello F (2016) Urinary and blood cadmium and lead and kidney function: NHANES 2007-2012. Int J Hyg Environ Health 219(3):261–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2016.01.005
Centers for Disease Control (2019a) Biomonitoring Summary Cadmium CAS No. 7440-43-9. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Cadmium_BiomonitoringSummary.html. Last accessed on 15 June 2019
Centers for Disease Control (2019b) Biomonitoring Summary Lead CAS No. 7439-92-1. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Lead_BiomonitoringSummary.html. Last accessed on 15 June 2019
Centers for Disease Control (2019c) Biomonitoring Summary Mercury CAS No. 7439-97-6. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Mercury_BiomonitoringSummary.html. Last accessed on 15 June 2019
Centers for Disease Control (2019d) National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.htm?CDC_AA_refVal=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fnchs%2Fnhanes.htm. Last accessed on 15 June 2019
Harari F, Sallsten G, Christensson A, Petkovic M, Hedblad B, Forsgard N, Melander O, Nilsson PM, Borné Y, Engström G, Barregard L (2018) Blood lead levels and decreased kidney function in a population-based cohort. Am J Kidney Dis 72(3):381–389. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2018.02.358.
Jain RB (2016) Trends and variability in blood lead concentrations among US adults aged 20-64 years and senior citizens aged ≥65 years. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 23(14):14056–14067. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-6583-7.
Jain RB (2017a) Trends in and factors affecting the observed levels of urinary inorganic and total blood mercury among US children, adolescents, adults, and senior citizens over 2005-2012. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 56:268–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2017.09.003
Jain RB (2017b) Factors affecting the variability in the observed levels of cadmium in blood and urine among former and current smokers aged 20-64 and ≥ 65years. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 24(9):8837–8851. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8607-3.
Jain RB (2019a) Synergistic impact of co-exposures to toxic metals cadmium, lead, and mercury along with perfluoroalkyl substances on the healthy kidney function. Environ Res 169:342–347
Jain RB (2019b) Lead and kidney: concentrations, variabilities, and associations across the various stages of glomerular function. J Trace Elem Med Biol 54:36–43
Jarup L, Åkesson A (2009) Current status of cadmium as an environmental health problem. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 238:201–208
Jayawardena UA, Angunawela P, Wickramasinghe DD, Ratnasooriya WD, Udagama PV (2017) Heavy metal-induced toxicity in the Indian green frog: biochemical and histopathological alterations. Environ Toxicol Chem 36(10):2855–2867. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.3848
Kim R, Rotnitzky A, Sparrow D, Weiss ST, Wager C, Hu H (1996) A longitudinal study of low-level lead exposure and impairment of renal function: the Normative Aging Study. JAMA 275:1177–1181
Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CS, Zhang Y(L), Castro III AS, Feldman HI, Kusak JW, Eggers P, Van Lente F, Green T, Coresh J, MHS (2009) A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 150:604–612
Madrigal JM, Ricardo AC, Persky V, Turyk M (2019) Associations between blood cadmium concentration and kidney function in U.S. population: impact of sex, diabetes and hypertension. Environ Res 169:180–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.11.009
Muntner P, Vupputyuri S, Coresh J, Batuman V (2003) Blood lead and chronic kidney disease in the general United States population: results from NHANES III. Kidney Int 63:1044–1050
Navas-Acien A, Tellez-Plaza M, Guallar E, Muntner P, Silbergeld E, Jaar B, Weaver V (2009) Blood cadmium and lead and chronic kidney disease in US adults: a joint analysis. Am J Epidemiol 170:1156–1164. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwp248
Noonan CW, Sarasua SM, Campagna D, Kathman SJ, Lybarger JA, Mueller PW (2002) Effects of exposure to low levels of environmental cadmium on renal biomarkers. Environ Health Perspect 110:151–155
Olsson IM, Bensryd I, Lundh T, Ottosson H, Skerfving S, Oskarsson A (2002) Cadmium in blood and urine – impact of sex, age, dietary intake, iron status, and former smoking – association of renal effects. Environ Health Perspect 110:1185–1190
Orr SE, Bridges CC (2017) Chronic kidney disease and exposure to nephrotoxic metals. Int J Mol Sci 18:1039. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijims.18051039
Payton M, Hu H, Sparrow D, Weiss ST (1994) Low-level lead exposure and renal function in the Normative Aging Study. Am J Epidemiol 140:821–829
Rajeshkumar S, Liu Y, Ma J, Duan HY, Li X (2017) Effects of exposure to multiple heavy metals on biochemical and histopathological alterations in common carp, Cyprinus carpio L. Fish Shellfish Immunol 70:461–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsi.2017.08.013
Rana MN, Tangpong J, Rahman MM (2018) Toxicodynamics of lead, cadmium, mercury and arsenic-induced kidney toxicity and treatment strategy: a mini review. Toxicol Rep 5:704–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.05.012
Rodríguez LH, Rodríguez-Villamizar LA, Flórez-Vargas O, Fiallo YV, Ordoñez Á, Gutiérrez MD (2017) No effect of mercury exposure on kidney function during ongoing artisanal gold mining activities in Colombia. Toxicol Ind Health 33(1):67–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0748233716659031
Yu CC, Lin JL, Lin-Tan DT (2004) Environmental exposure to lead and progression of chronic renal diseases: a four-year prospective longitudinal study. J Am Soc Nephrol 15(4):1016–1022
Zalups RK (1998) Basolateral uptake of inorganic mercury in the kidney. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 151:192–199. https://doi.org/10.1006/taap.1998.8416
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Ethics declarations
No human subjects were involved in this research and all data used in this research are available free of cost at www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm.
Conflict of interest
The author declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Responsible editor: Philippe Garrigues
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jain, R.B. Co-exposures to toxic metals cadmium, lead, and mercury and their impact on unhealthy kidney function. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26, 30112–30118 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06182-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06182-y