Abstract
Rapid development has led to frequent haze in Beijing. With mountains and sea surrounding Beijing, the pollution is found to be influenced by the mountain-plain breeze and sea-land breeze in complex ways. Meanwhile, the presence of aerosols may affect the surface energy balance and impact these boundary layer (BL) processes. The effects of BL processes on aerosol pollution and the feedback between aerosol and BL processes are not yet clearly understood. Thus, the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled with Chemistry (WRF-Chem) is used to investigate the possible effects and feedbacks during a haze episode on 23 September 2011. Influenced by the onshore prevailing wind, sea-breeze, and upslope breeze, about 45 % of surface particulate matter (PM)2.5 in Beijing are found to be contributed by its neighbor cities through regional transport. In the afternoon, the development of upslope breeze suppresses the growth of BL in Beijing by imposing a relatively low thermal stable layer above the BL, which exacerbates the pollution. Two kinds of feedback during the daytime are revealed as follows: (1) as the aerosols absorb and scatter the solar radiation, the surface net radiation and sensible heat flux are decreased, while BL temperature is increased, resulting in a more stable and shallower BL, which leads to a higher surface PM2.5 concentration in the morning and (2) in the afternoon, as the presence of aerosols increases the BL temperature over plains, the upslope breeze is weakened, and the boundary layer height (BLH) over Beijing is heightened, resulting in the decrease of the surface PM2.5 concentration there.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ackermann IJ, Hass H, Memmesheimer M et al (1998) Modal aerosol dynamics model for Europe. Atmos Environ 32:2981–2999. doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(98)00006-5
Albrecht BA (1989) Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness. Science 245(80-):1227–1230. doi:10.1126/science.245.4923.1227
Atwater MA (1970) Planetary albedo changes due to aerosols. Science 170(80-):64–6. doi:10.1126/science.170.3953.64
Cesnulyte V, Lindfors a V, Pitkänen MR a et al (2014) Comparing ECMWF AOD with AERONET observations at visible and UV wavelengths. Atmos Chem Phys 14:593–608. doi:10.5194/acp-14-593-2014
Chan CK, Yao X (2008) Air pollution in mega cities in China. Atmos Environ 42:1–42. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.003
Che H, Xia X, Zhu J et al (2015) Aerosol optical properties under the condition of heavy haze over an urban site of Beijing, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 22:1043–53. doi:10.1007/s11356-014-3415-5
Chen F, Dudhia J (2001) Coupling an advanced land surface–hydrology model with the Penn State–NCAR MM5 modeling system. Part II: preliminary model validation. Mon Weather Rev 129:587–604. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0587:CAALSH>2.0.CO;2
Chen Y, Zhao C, Zhang Q et al (2009) Aircraft study of mountain chimney effect of Beijing, China. J Geophys Res Atmos 114:1–10. doi:10.1029/2008JD010610
Chow FK, De Wekker SF, Snyder BJ (2012) Mountain weather research and forecasting: recent progress and current challenges. Springer Science & Business Media. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4098-3
Coakley JA, Cess RD, Yurevich FB (1983) The effect of tropospheric aerosols on the Earth’s radiation budget: a parameterization for climate models. J Atmos Sci 40:116–138. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1983)040<0116:TEOTAO>2.0.CO;2
Crosman ET, Horel JD (2010) Sea and lake breezes: a review of numerical studies. Bound -Layer Meteorol 137:1–29. doi:10.1007/s10546-010-9517-9
Curci G, Hogrefe C, Bianconi R et al (2015) Uncertainties of simulated aerosol optical properties induced by assumptions on aerosol physical and chemical properties: an AQMEII-2 perspective. Atmos Environ 115:541–552. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.09.009
Dee DP, Uppala SM, Simmons AJ et al (2011) The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Q J R Meteorol Soc 137:553–597. doi:10.1002/qj.828
Dou J, Wang Y, Bornstein R, Miao S (2015) Observed spatial characteristics of Beijing urban climate impacts on summer thunderstorms. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 54:94–105. doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-13-0355.1
Fu GQ, Xu WY, Yang RF et al (2014) The distribution and trends of fog and haze in the North China Plain over the past 30 years. Atmos Chem Phys 14:11949–11958. doi:10.5194/acp-14-11949-2014
Gao Y, Zhang M, Liu Z et al (2015) Modeling the feedback between aerosol and meteorological variables in the atmospheric boundary layer during a severe fog–haze event over the North China Plain. Atmos Chem Phys 15:4279–4295. doi:10.5194/acp-15-4279-2015
Gong SL, Barrie LA, Blanchet J-P (1997) Modeling sea-salt aerosols in the atmosphere: 1. Model development. J Geophys Res 102:3805. doi:10.1029/96JD02953
Grell GA, Freitas SR (2014) A scale and aerosol aware stochastic convective parameterization for weather and air quality modeling. Atmos Chem Phys 14:5233–5250. doi:10.5194/acp-14-5233-2014
Grell GA, Peckham SE, Schmitz R et al (2005) Fully coupled “online” chemistry within the WRF model. Atmos Environ 39:6957–6975. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.04.027
Guenther A, Zimmerman P, Wildermuth M (1994) Natural volatile organic compound emission rate estimates for U.S. woodland landscapes. Atmos Environ 28:1197–1210. doi:10.1016/1352-2310(94)90297-6
Guenther AB, Zimmerman PR, Harley PC et al (1993) Isoprene and monoterpene emission rate variability: model evaluations and sensitivity analyses. J Geophys Res 98:12609. doi:10.1029/93JD00527
Han T, Liu X, Zhang Y et al (2015) Role of secondary aerosols in haze formation in summer in the Megacity Beijing. J Environ Sci 31:51–60. doi:10.1016/j.jes.2014.08.026
He K, Yang F, Ma Y et al (2001) The characteristics of PM2.5 in Beijing, China. Atmos Environ 35:4959–4970. doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(01)00301-6
Holben BN, Eck TF, Slutsker I et al (1998) AERONET—a federated instrument network and data archive for aerosol characterization. Remote Sens Environ 66:1–16. doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00031-5
Hong S-Y, Noh Y, Dudhia J (2006) A New vertical diffusion package with an explicit treatment of entrainment processes. Mon Weather Rev 134:2318–2341. doi:10.1175/MWR3199.1
Hu X, Ma Z, Lin W et al (2014) Impact of the Loess Plateau on the atmospheric boundary layer structure and air quality in the North China Plain: a case study. Sci Total Environ 499:228–237. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.08.053
Huang R-J, Zhang Y, Bozzetti C et al (2014) High secondary aerosol contribution to particulate pollution during haze events in China. Nature. doi:10.1038/nature13774
Huang X, Song Y, Zhao C et al (2015) Direct radiative effect by multicomponent aerosol over China*. J Clim 28:3472–3495. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00365.1
Iacono MJ, Delamere JS, Mlawer EJ et al (2008) Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: calculations with the AER radiative transfer models. J Geophys Res 113:D13103. doi:10.1029/2008JD009944
Justice C, Townshend JR, Vermote E et al (2002) An overview of MODIS Land data processing and product status. Remote Sens Environ 83:3–15. doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(02)00084-6
Kumar R, Barth MC, Pfister GG et al (2014) WRF-Chem simulations of a typical pre-monsoon dust storm in northern India: influences on aerosol optical properties and radiation budget. Atmos Chem Phys 14:2431–2446. doi:10.5194/acp-14-2431-2014
Kusaka H, Kondo H, Kikegawa Y, Kimura F (2001) A simple single-layer urban canopy model for atmospheric models: comparison with multi-layer and slab models. Bound -Layer Meteorol 101:329–358. doi:10.1023/A:1019207923078
Li R, Li Z, Gao W et al (2014) Diurnal, seasonal, and spatial variation of PM2.5 in Beijing. Sci Bull 60:387–395. doi:10.1007/s11434-014-0607-9
Li Z, Xia X, Cribb M et al (2007) Aerosol optical properties and their radiative effects in northern China. J Geophys Res 112:1–11. doi:10.1029/2006JD007382
Li Z, Zhao X, Kahn R et al (2009) Uncertainties in satellite remote sensing of aerosols and impact on monitoring its long-term trend: a review and perspective. Ann Geophys 27:2755–2770. doi:10.5194/angeo-27-2755-2009
Lin Y-L, Farley RD, Orville HD (1983) Bulk parameterization of the snow field in a cloud model. J Clim Appl Meteorol 22:1065–1092. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1983)022<1065:BPOTSF>2.0.CO;2
Liu H, Zhang L, Wu J (2010) A modeling study of the climate effects of sulfate and carbonaceous aerosols over China. Adv Atmos Sci 27:1276–1288. doi:10.1007/s00376-010-9188-y
Liu J, Xia X, Wang P et al (2007) Significant aerosol direct radiative effects during a pollution episode in northern China. Geophys Res Lett 34:1–5. doi:10.1029/2007GL030953
Liu S, Liu Z, Li J et al (2009) Numerical simulation for the coupling effect of local atmospheric circulations over the area of Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Province. Sci China Ser D Earth Sci 52:382–392. doi:10.1007/s11430-009-0030-2
Liu XG, Li J, Qu Y et al (2013) Formation and evolution mechanism of regional haze: a case study in the megacity Beijing, China. Atmos Chem Phys 13:4501–4514. doi:10.5194/acp-13-4501-2013
Miao Y, Liu S, Zheng Y et al (2015a) Numerical study of the effects of topography and urbanization on the local atmospheric circulations over the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, China. Adv Meteorol 2015:1–16. doi:10.1155/2015/397070
Miao Y, Liu S, Zheng Y et al (2015b) Numerical study of the effects of local atmospheric circulations on a pollution event over Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, China. J Environ Sci 30:9–20. doi:10.1016/j.jes.2014.08.025
Miller STK (2003) Sea breeze: structure, forecasting, and impacts. Rev Geophys 41:1011. doi:10.1029/2003RG000124
Olivier J, Peters J, Granier C et al (2003) Present and future surface emissions of atmospheric compounds. POET Report #2, EU project EVK2-1999-00011
Qian Y, Ruby Leung L, Ghan SJ, Giorgi F (2003) Regional climate effects of aerosols over China: modeling and observation. Tellus B 55:914–934. doi:10.1046/j.1435-6935.2003.00070.x
Quan J, Gao Y, Zhang Q et al (2013) Evolution of planetary boundary layer under different weather conditions, and its impact on aerosol concentrations. Particuology 11:34–40. doi:10.1016/j.partic.2012.04.005
Quan J, Tie X, Zhang Q et al (2014) Characteristics of heavy aerosol pollution during the 2012–2013 winter in Beijing, China. Atmos Environ 88:83–89. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.01.058
Ramanathan V, Crutzen PJ, Kiehl JT, Rosenfeld D (2001) Aerosols, climate, and the hydrological cycle. Science 294(80-):2119–24. doi:10.1126/science.1064034
Rosenfeld D, Lensky IM (1998) Satellite-based insights into precipitation formation processes in continental and maritime convective clouds. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 79:2457–2476. doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1998)079<2457:SBIIPF>2.0.CO;2
Saha A, Mallet M, Roger JC et al (2008) One year measurements of aerosol optical properties over an urban coastal site: Effect on local direct radiative forcing. Atmos Res 90:195–202. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.02.003
San Martini FM, Hasenkopf CA, Roberts DC (2015) Statistical analysis of PM2.5 observations from diplomatic facilities in China. Atmos Environ 110:174–185. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.060
Sayer AM, Munchak LA, Hsu NC et al (2014) MODIS collection 6 aerosol products: comparison between Aqua’s e-deep blue, dark target, and “merged” data sets, and usage recommendations. J Geophys Res Atmos 119:13,965–13,989. doi:10.1002/2014JD022453
Schell B, Ackermann IJ, Hass H et al (2001) Modeling the formation of secondary organic aerosol within a comprehensive air quality model system. J Geophys Res Atmos 106:28275–28293. doi:10.1029/2001JD000384
Serafin S, Zardi D (2010) Daytime heat transfer processes related to slope flows and turbulent convection in an idealized mountain valley. J Atmos Sci 67:3739–3756. doi:10.1175/2010JAS3428.1
Shaw WJ, Jerry Allwine K, Fritz BG et al (2008) An evaluation of the wind erosion module in DUSTRAN. Atmos Environ 42:1907–1921. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.11.022
Sokolik IN, Toon OB (1996) Direct radiative forcing by airborne mineral aerosols. J Aerosol Sci 27:S11–S12. doi:10.1016/0021-8502(96)00078-X
Stockwell WR, Middleton P, Chang JS, Tang X (1990) The second generation regional acid deposition model chemical mechanism for regional air quality modeling. J Geophys Res 95:16343. doi:10.1029/JD095iD10p16343
Streets DG, Fu JS, Jang CJ et al (2007) Air quality during the 2008 Beijing olympic games. Atmos Environ 41:480–492. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.046
Sun Y, Song T, Tang G, Wang Y (2013) The vertical distribution of PM2.5 and boundary-layer structure during summer haze in Beijing. Atmos Environ 74:413–421. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.03.011
Wang X, Liang X, Jiang W et al (2010) WRF-Chem simulation of East Asian air quality: Sensitivity to temporal and vertical emissions distributions. Atmos Environ 44(5):660–669. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.11.011
Wang J, Wang S, Jiang J, Ding A (2013) Impact of aerosol – meteorology interactions on fi ne particle pollution during China’ s severe haze episode in January 2013. Environ Res Lett. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/9/094002
Wiedinmyer C, Akagi SK, Yokelson RJ et al (2011) The Fire INventory from NCAR (FINN): a high resolution global model to estimate the emissions from open burning. Geosci Model Dev 4:625–641. doi:10.5194/gmd-4-625-2011
Xia X, Li Z, Wang P et al (2007) Estimation of aerosol effects on surface irradiance based on measurements and radiative transfer model simulations in northern China. J Geophys Res Atmos 112:1–11. doi:10.1029/2006JD008337
Yang P, Ren G, Liu W (2013) Spatial and temporal characteristics of Beijing urban heat island intensity. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 52:1803–1816. doi:10.1175/JAMC-D-12-0125.1
Yu H, Kaufman YJ, Chin M et al (2006) A review of measurement-based assessments of the aerosol direct radiative effect and forcing. Atmos Chem Phys 6:613–666. doi:10.5194/acp-6-613-2006
Zhang B, Wang Y, Hao J (2015a) Simulating aerosol–radiation–cloud feedbacks on meteorology and air quality over eastern China under severe haze conditions in winter. Atmos Chem Phys 15:2387–2404. doi:10.5194/acp-15-2387-2015
Zhang et al (2013) Numerical simulation of characteristics of summer clear day boundary layer in Beijing and the impact of urban underlying surface on sea breeze. Chinese J Geophys Ed 8:2558–2573. doi:10.6038/cjg20130806
Zhang L, Wang T, Lv M, Zhang Q (2015b) On the severe haze in beijing during january 2013 : unraveling the effects of meteorological anomalies with WRF-chem. Atmos Environ 104:11–21. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.01.001
Zhuang B, Jiang F, Wang T et al (2010) Investigation on the direct radiative effect of fossil fuel black-carbon aerosol over China. Theor Appl Climatol 104:301–312. doi:10.1007/s00704-010-0341-4
Acknowledgments
We thank Dr. Xiaoming Hu from University of Oklahoma for important advice. We thank Tsinghua University for providing the MEIC inventory. This work was supported by the National Sciences Foundation of China (Grant no. 41175004, 41465001), the China Meteorological Administration Special Public Welfare Research Fund (GYHY201106033), and the China Scholarship Council (CSC).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible editor: Gerhard Lammel
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Miao, Y., Liu, S., Zheng, Y. et al. Modeling the feedback between aerosol and boundary layer processes: a case study in Beijing, China. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23, 3342–3357 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5562-8
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5562-8