Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), usually designed to remove organic pollutants and nutrients, are often poorly equipped to handle pathogens. The present study investigated the multiple barriers provided by WWTPs to understand their role in spreading pathogenic bacteria into the environment. Three types of WWTPs (hospital, domestic, and mixed) differing in the source of raw influent, operating parameters, and reactor configuration (biological and tertiary treatment processes) were compared for the presence of fecal indicators and pathogenic bacteria discharged in their treated effluents. The plate-count technique was used for bacterial enumeration on selective agar. The microbial quality of the treated effluent was observed to be strongly influenced by characteristics inherent to a WWTP rather than depending on the characteristics of the raw influent. Among the different configurations studied, membrane bioreactor (MBR) treatment followed by chlorine disinfection provided an effluent of the highest quality (100% bacterial removal rates) followed by moving bed bioreactor (MBBR) combined with UV disinfection. MBR treatment greatly increased the efficiency of chlorine disinfection. Higher total suspended solids (TSS) removal corresponded to higher bacterial removal rates. Tertiary treatment proved to be an important determinant of the microbial quality of the final effluent. A great heterogeneity was observed in the removal rates of different bacterial groups with different treatment processes. The highest removal was observed in the case of indicators and least in the case of emerging pathogens like Escherichia coliO157: H7 indicating a lack of correlation between traditional indicators and emerging pathogens and also the inefficiency of the current wastewater treatment technologies in dealing with emerging pathogens.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ajonina, C., Buzie, C., Rubiandini, R. H., & Otterpohl, R. (2015). Microbial pathogens in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in Hamburg. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 78(6), 381–387. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2014.989626.
Al-Gheethi, A. A., Efaq, A. N., Bala, J. D., Norli, I., Abdel-Monem, M. O., & Ab. Kadir, M. O. (2018). Removal of pathogenic bacteria from sewage treated effluent and biosolids for agricultural purposes. Applied Water Science, 8, 74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0698-6.
APHA (2012) Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater. 22, American Public Health Association, Water Environment Federation.
Arthurson, V. (2008). Proper sanitization of sewage sludge: a critical issue for a sustainable society. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 74(17), 5267–5275. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00438-08.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2013). Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2013. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Dungeni, M., Merwe, R. R., & Momba, M. N. B. (2010). Abundance of pathogenic bacteria and viral indicators in chlorinated effluents produced by four wastewater treatment plants in the Gauteng Province, South Africa. Water SA, 36(5), 607–614. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v36i5.61994.
Espigares, E., Bueno, A., Espigares, M., & Gálvez, R. (2006). Isolation of Salmonella serotypes in wastewater and effluent: effect of treatment and potential risk. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 209, 103–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2005.08.006.
Friedler, E., Kovalio, R., & Ben-Zvi, A. (2006). Comparative study of the microbial quality of greywater treated by three on-site treatment systems. Environmental Technology, 27, 653–663. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593332708618674.
Grant, S. B., Saphores, J. D., Feldman, D. L., Hamilton, A. J., Fletcher, T. D., Cook, P. L., Stewardson, M., Sanders, B. F., Levin, L. A., Ambrose, R. F., Deletic, A., Brown, R., Jiang, S. C., Rosso, D., Cooper, W. J., & Marusic, I. (2012). Taking the “waste” out of out of “wastewater” for human water security and ecosystem sustainability. Science., 337, 681–686. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1216852.
Hai, F.I., Riley, T., Shawkat,S., Magram, S.F., Yamamoto, K. (2014) Removal of pathogens by membrane bioreactors: a review of the mechanisms, influencing factors and reduction in chemical disinfectant dosing. Water, 6, 3603–3630. https://doi.org/10.3390/w6123603.
Haramoto, E., Katayama, H., Oguma, K., & Ohgaki, S. (2007). Quantitative analysis of human enteric adenoviruses in aquatic environments. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 103, 2153–2159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03453.x.
Horman, A., Rimhanen-Finne, R., Maunula, L., von Bonsdorff, C.H., Torvela, N., Heikinheimo, A., Hanninen, M.L., (2004) Campylobacter spp., Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Noroviruses, and indicator organisms in surface water in southwestern Finland, 2000-2001. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70, 87–95. doi: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.1.87-95.2004.
Katayama, H., Haramoto, E., Oguma, K., Yamashita, H., Tajima, A., Nakajima, H., et al. (2008). One-year monthly quantitative survey of noroviruses, enteroviruses, and adenoviruses in wastewater collected from six plants in Japan. Water Research, 42, 1441–1448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2007.10.029.
Kauser, I., Ciesielski, M., & Poretsky, R. S. (2019). Ultraviolet disinfection impacts the microbial community composition and function of treated wastewater effluent and the receiving urban river. PeerJ, e7455. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7455.
Koivunen, J., Siitonen, A., & Heinonen-Tanski, H. (2003). Elimination of enteric bacteria in biological-chemical wastewater treatment and tertiary filtration units. Water Research, 37, 690–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00305-6.
Li, D., Zeng, S., Az, G., He, M., & Shi, H. (2013). Inactivation, reactivation and regrowth of indigenous bacteria in reclaimed water after chlorine disinfection of a mixed wastewater treatment plant. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 25, 1319–1325. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(12)60176-4.
Mehrad, B., Clark, N. M., Zhanel, G. G., & Lynch, J. P. (2015). Antimicrobial resistance in hospital-acquired gram-negative bacterial infections. Chest, 147(5), 1413–1421. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.14-2171.
Munir, M., Wong, K., & Xagoraraki, I. (2011). Release of antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes in the effluent and biosolids of five wastewater utilities in Michigan. Water Research, 45(2), 681–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2010.08.033.
Norton, C. D., & LeChevallier, M. W. (2000). A pilot study of bacteriological population changes through potable water treatment and distribution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 66(1), 268–276. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem..66.1.268-276.2000.
Poza, M., Gayoso, C, Gomez, M.J., Rumbofeal, S., Tomas, M., Aranda, J. et al. (2012) Exploring bacterial diversity in hospital environments by GS-FLX Titanium Pyrosequencing. PLoS One, 7(8):e44105. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044105.
Sano, D., Matsuo, T., & Omura, T. (2004). Virus-binding proteins recovered from bacterial culture derived from activated sludge by affinity chromatography assay using a viral capsid peptide. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 70, 3434–3442. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.6.3434-3442.2004.
Savichtcheva, O., & Okabe, S. (2006). Alternative indicators of fecal pollution: relations with pathogens and conventional indicators, current methodologies for direct pathogen monitoring and future application perspectives. Water Research, 40, 2463–2476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.04.040.
Sidek, L.M., Mohiyaden, H. A., Basri, H.A, Salih, G.H.A., Birima, A.H., Ali, Z. et al. (2015) Experimental comparison between moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) and conventional activated sludge (CAS) for river purification treatment plant. Advances in Materials Research, 1113, 806–811. doi: https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1113.806.
Tablan, O. C., Anderson, L. J., Besser, R., Bridges, C., & Hajjeh, R. (2004). CDC; Healthcare infection control practices advisory committee. Guidelines for preventing health-care—associated pneumonia, 2003: Recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committe. MMWR - Recommendations and Reports, 53(RR-3), 1–36.
Ting, G. M., Huang, J., Hu, H., & Liu, W. (2011). Growth and repair potential of three species of bacteria in reclaimed wastewater after UV disinfection. Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, 24(4), 400–407. https://doi.org/10.3967/0895-3988.2011.04.011.
Tyagi, V. K., Sahoo, B. K., Khursheed, A., Kazmi, A., Ahmad, Z., & Chopra, A. K. (2011). Fate of coliforms and pathogenic parasite in four full-scale sewage treatment systems in India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 181, 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-010-1818-4.
Wang, X. J., Hu, X. X., Wang, H. B., & Hu, C. (2012). Synergistic effect of the sequential use of UV irradiation and chlorine to disinfect reclaimed water. Water Research, 46, 1225–1232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.12.027.
Wen, Q., Tutuka, C., Keegan, A., & Jin, B. (2009). Fate of pathogenic microorganisms and indicators in secondary activated sludge wastewater treatment plants. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(3), 1442–1447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.09.002.
Winfield, M. D., & Groisman, E. A. (2003). Role of nonhost environments in the lifestyles of Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 3687–3694. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.7.3687-3694.2003.
World health organization (WHO) Water sanitation and health. (2015) [(assessed on 17 Feb 2015)]. online: http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/diseases.
Zanetti, F., De Luca, G., & Sacchetti, R. (2010). Performance of a full-scale membrane bioreactor system in treating mixed wastewater for reuse purposes. Bioresource Technology, 101, 3768–3771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.12.091.
Acknowledgments
Authors thank Head, Department of Zoology and CAS, Department of Zoology for providing support and encouragement for this study. Authors like to extend a special thanks to SDMH administration, Jaipur Development Authority (JDA), and Jaipur Municipal Corporation (JMC) for providing access to SDMH, Jawahar Circle and Delawas treatment plants respectively.
Funding
This research was financially supported by the University Grants Commission (UGC) under CSIR-UGC NET SRF scheme (file no. 41-4/NET/RES/JRF-1413/391). The funding source had no involvement in the study design, in the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, in the writing of the report, and the decision to submit the article for publication.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Bhatt, P., Mathur, N., Singh, A. et al. Evaluation of Factors Influencing the Environmental Spread of Pathogens by Wastewater Treatment Plants. Water Air Soil Pollut 231, 440 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04807-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-020-04807-4