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The Social Value of Expressing Personal and General Belief in a Just World in Different Contexts

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Abstract

Research conducted in France and Portugal has consistently found that expressing high versus low Belief in a Personal Just World (BJW-P) is more socially valued. Results concerning the Belief in a General Just World (BJW-G) have been mixed. We propose this reflects a higher resistance of BJW-P social value to contextual changes. Testing this idea was the main goal of three experimental studies conducted in France, Germany and Portugal. In Study 1 (N = 283) participants expressed higher BJW-G when asked to convey a positive versus a negative image in a job application at a bank. The opposite pattern showed up when they applied for a job at a Human Rights NGO, an employment assistance institution and a trade union. Participants expressed higher BJW-P in all contexts, except at the trade union (no significant differences). In Study 2 (N = 489) participants judged bogus candidates who expressed high or low BJW-P/G while applying for a job at the same contexts. The patterns of judgments replicated those of self-presentations in Study 1. In Study 3 (N = 158), participants were asked to judge targets who expressed high versus moderate versus low BJW-P at a trade union. The former target was more socially valued than the other two. High versus low BJW-P expression was associated with higher stamina and less unadjusted self-enhancement. We conclude that in Western societies the expression of BJW-P is more central to the legitimation of the status quo and that of BJW-G is more context sensitive.

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Notes

  1. Indeed, as reviewed, Testé and Perrin’s (2013) results involving the expression of BJW-P and Gangloff and Duchon’s (2010) results involving the expression of BJW-G in France are consistent with Alves and Correia’s (2008, 2010a) in Portugal. The divergent patterns involving the expression of BJW-G exist not only between countries, but also within France. Possibly, while responding, participants evoked different contexts for reasons we cannot ascertain now. If, as Alves and Correia (2010b) suggested and we intend to show here, the expression of BJW-G is indeed context sensitive, the various contexts that participants evoked may have influenced their responses differently. Although it is not possible to ascertain whether nor why participants in different studies evoked different contexts, that possibility seems more plausible than an explanation based on hypothetical “cultural differences” between France and Portugal (which would also have to predict deep cultural differences within France).

  2. There were significant main effects of BJW spheres, F(1, 275) = 54.78, p < .001, η 2 p = .17, and images within contexts, F(3, 825) = 94.18, p < .001, η 2 p = .26. Specifically, participants used higher BJW-P to self-present positively and higher BJW-G to self-present negatively (M = 1.16, SD = 1.68 vs. M =  − 0.25, SD = 1.49). As regards images within contexts, when participants conveyed a positive rather than a negative image at an institution or, especially, at a bank, they used higher BJW (M = 0.54, SD = 2.66 and M = 2.16, SD = 1.99; p < .001, respectively). When participants applied for a job at a union or at a Human Rights NGO, their scores were equally higher when they were conveying a negative rather than a positive image (M = − 0.56, SD = 2.63 vs. M = − 0.29, SD = 2.73; p = .40).

  3. With items 1 and 2 we had originally intended to measure target social desirability, that is those characteristics that make individuals attractive in the eyes of others (e.g., nice, warm, pleasant), thus having interpersonal value. With items 3 and 4 we intended to measure target social utility, that is the characteristics that Western, economically liberal societies evaluate as essential if their members are to become successful (e.g., autonomous, industrious, entrepreneurial), thus having market value (Beauvois & Dépret, 2008; Cambon, 2006). With item 5 we intended to have a more behavioral measure. Exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation, however, identified four general “social value” factors explaining 80.96% of variance, each of which comprised the five items by context: λinstitution = 4.30 (loadings: .83–.87); λbank = 3.98 (loadings: .89–.90); λunion = 3.97 (loadings: .77–.88); λNGO = 3.95 (loadings: .73–.87). The factorial solution did not differ among the countries.

  4. There was also a main effect of contexts, indicating that the targets who applied for a job at a union versus an institution were judged as having higher social value (M = 3.95, SD = 1.43 vs. M = 3.71, SD = 1.44; p = .004), F(3, 1446) = 3.97, p = .01, η 2 p = .01. Finally, there was a context by degree of BJW expressed, F(3, 1446) = 65.20, p < .001, η 2 p = .12. When the targets applied for a job at a bank, those who expressed high vs. low BJW were judged as having higher social value (M = 4.55, SD = 1.21 vs. M = 3.16, SD = 1.16; p <.001). When they applied for a job at a union the pattern was reversed (M = 3.75, SD = 1.47 vs. M = 4.14, SD = 1.37; p = .03). There were no significant differences regarding the Human Rights NGO (p = .20) or the institution (p = .48).

  5. We first conducted a factorial analysis with Varimax rotation including all items (except the distractors). This resulted in a six-factor solution with eigenvalues higher than 1 explaining 69.70% of variance. We excluded: (a) “If someone responds to the questionnaire like this in a trade union, they will convey a bad image of themselves.”; “Responses similar to those of this person diminish the bargaining power of trade unionists.” which comprised (an uninterpretable) Factor 6 (with the latter item also having a high loading in Factor 3); and (b) “In order to improve the labour situation, it is necessary to say something similar to what the person answered in the questionnaire,” which had a high loading in Factor 5 only.

    We then ran another factorial analysis with Varimax rotation, which indicated a four-factor solution explaining 66.30% of variance. We aggregated Factors 1 and 3 (the latter comprising the five items used in Study 2) to calculate our measure of target social value. This aggregation is justified statistically by the fact that Factors 1 and 3 were highly correlated (r = .76) with three items having high loadings on both factors (≥ .49). Importantly, in terms of meaning, the items of both factors refer to the social value of the targets and of what they expressed. Finally, exploratory analyses comparing our social value measure versus a measure without Factor 3 items versus a measure comprising only Factor 3 items indicated similar results.

  6. One could also argue that the ambivalence found in Testé and Perrin (2013) could be the result of their using Lipkus et al. (1996) BJW-G scale. We think this is a very unlikely possibility. Indeed, Alves and Correia (2008, 2010a, 2013) used Dalbert et al.’s (1987) scale, which comprises very similarly worded items, and found no such ambivalence. Also, research that used the very differently worded scale by Rubin and Peplau (1975) arrived at conclusions that are in line with BJW-G expression being socially valued, not ambivalent (e.g., Duchon & Gangloff, 2008; Gangloff, 2008).

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  1. Centro de Investigação e Intervenção Social (CIS-IUL), Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL), Av. das Forças Armadas, 1649-026, Lisbon, Portugal

    Hélder V. Alves

  2. Laboratoire Parisien de Psychologie Sociale, Université Paris 10, Paris, France

    Bernard Gangloff

  3. Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Institut für Pädagogik Arbeitsbereich Pädagogische Psychologie, Halle, Germany

    Sören Umlauft

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  1. Hélder V. Alves
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Alves, H.V., Gangloff, B. & Umlauft, S. The Social Value of Expressing Personal and General Belief in a Just World in Different Contexts. Soc Just Res 31, 152–181 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11211-018-0306-9

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