Abstract
The speeches delivered by Former U.S. President Donald Trump during his last presidential campaign (2015–2016) included hateful remarks against Muslims and immigrants. This study explored strategies of hate speech used in Trump’s political discourse against out-groups. The data consisted of a corpus of Trump’s speeches and interviews. Our analysis was based on Whillock’s [48] criteria of hate speech and Erjavec and Kovačič’s [13] strategies of hate speech. The results revealed that Trump employed re-articulation of meaning and renaming by attributing any problem to immigrants and Muslims to express hatred against them, using direct hatred words. His overt use of hate speech strategies stemmed from his legitimate power and social authority as a successful businessman in his field.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Adamczak-Krysztofowicz, Sylwia, and Anna. Szczepaniak-Kozak. 2017. A disturbing view of intercultural communication: findings of a study into hate speech. Linguistica Silesiana 38: 285–309. https://doi.org/10.24425/linsi.2017.117055.
Althusser, Louis. 1971. Lenin and philosophy. Trans. Ben Brewster. New York: Monthly Review.
Baker, Paul. 2008. A useful methodological synergy? Combining critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics to examine discourses of refugees and asylum seekers in the UK press. Discourse & Society 19(3): 273–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926508088962.
Belgrimet, Souad and Ghaleb Rabab’ah. 2021. A multimodal discourse analysis of english posters in violence awareness campaigns against women. Theory and Practice in Language Studies 11(2):191–201. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1102.12.
Brown, Alexander. 2008. The racial and religious hatred act 2006: a Millian response. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 11(1): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230701880471.
Brown, Alexander. 2017. What is hate speech? Part 1: the myth of hate. Law and Philosophy 36(4): 419–468. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10982-017-9297-1.
Castañeda, Alejandro Gómez. 2016. Aristotle’s rhetoric in Trump’s hate speech. Open Access Library Journal 3(9): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1102916.
Cervone, Cristina, and Anne Maass. 2021. The language of derogation and hate: functions, consequences, and reappropriation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 40(1): 80–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X20967394.
Culpeper, Jonathan. 2021. Impoliteness and hate speech: compare and contrast. Journal of Pragmatics 179: 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2021.04.019.
Crockett, Zachary. 2016. What I learned analyzing 7 months of Donald Trump’s tweets. Vox. Retrieved October 24, 2022, from http://www.vox.com/2016/5/16/11603854/donald-trump-twitter.
Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. 1995. Images of the outsider in American law and culture: can free expression remedy systemic social ills? In Critical race theory: the cutting edge, ed. Richard Delgado. 217–227. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University.
Dibas, Shahd, Ghaleb Rabab’ah, Ahmad, S. Haider. 2023. Ideological dichotomy in the arab newspapers Coverage: the case of the 2017 Riyadh Summit. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law 36: 1239–1257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-022-09914-5.
Erjavec, Karmen, and Polona Kovačič. 2012. You don’t understand, this is a new war! Analysis of hate speech in news websites’ comments. Mass Communication and Society 15(3): 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2011.619679.
Goldberg, David Theo. 1995. Ethical theory and social issues: history texts and contemporary readings. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace and Co.
Guynn, Jessica. 2016, October 23. Massive rise in hate speech on Twitter during the presidential election. USA Today. Retrieved September 14, 2022, from http://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2016/10/21/massive-rise-in-hate-speech-twitter-during-presidential-election-donald-trump/92486210/.
Giddens, A. 1993. Sociology. 2nd ed. United Kingdom: Polity.
Haggray, John. 2022. (n.d.). Condemning the hate speech of Donald Trump. American Baptist Home Mission Societies. Retrieved November 12, from https://abhms.org/about-us/news/condemning-the-hate-speech-of-donald-trump/.
Hall, Stuart. 1992. The question of cultural identity. In Modernity and its futures, eds. David Stuart Hall, Held, and Tony McGrew. 273–326. Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Hoffmann, Jens, and Lorraine Sheridan. 2008. &. Celebrities as victims of stalking. In J. Reid Meloy, Lorraine Sheridan, & Jens Hoffmann (Eds.), Stalking, threatening, and attacking public figures: a psychological and behavioral analysis (pp. 195–214).
Kessar, Sara, Ghaleb Rabab’ah, Wafa Al-Khadra and Hadi Hamdan. 2021. The representation of the algerian hirak protest movement in the international media: France 24 and Al-Jazeera. Cogent Social Sciences 17(1): 1930646. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2021.1930646.
Khan, Mubashir, Farah Qazalbash, Hafiz Adnan, Yaqin Li, and Rashid Khuhro. 2021. Trump and muslims: a critical discourse analysis of islamophobic rhetoric in Donald Trump’s selected tweets. SAGE Open 11(1): 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211004172.
Kharakh, Ben, and Daniel Primack. 2016, March 22. &. Donald Trump’s social media ties to white supremacists. Fortune. Retrieved from http://fortune.com/donald-trump-white-supremacist-genocide/.
Knapp, Michael. 2003. The concept and practice of jihad in Islam. Parameters: U.S. Army War College Quarterly. 33(1). 82–94. https://press.armywarcollege.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2132&context=parameters
McClay, Rob. 2017. Us and them: a descriptive analysis of Donald Trump’s campaign speeches. (Master’s thesis). University of Birmingham.
Massey, Douglas S. 2009. Racial formation in theory and practice: the case of mexicans in the United States. Race and Social Problems 1(1): 12–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-009-9005-3.
Matsuda, Mari J. 1989. Public response to racist speech: considering the victim’s story. Michigan Law Review 87(8). 2320 – 238. https://doi.org/10.2307/1289306.
McDevitt, Jack, and Susan Bennett. 2002. Hate crime offenders: an expanded typology. Journal of Social Issues 58(2): 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4560.00262.
Neumann, Richard, and David Geary. 2019. Reaching muslims from the bully pulpit: analyzing modern presidential discourse on Islam and muslims from FDR to Trump. International Journal of Communication 13: 4107–4129. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/8705/2773.
Ott, Brian L. 2017. The age of Twitter: Donald J. Trump and the politics of debasement. Critical Studies in Media Communication 34(1): 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2016.1266686.
Patton, Tracey Owens. 2004. Reflections of a black woman professor: racism and sexism in academia. Howard Journal of Communications 15(3): 185–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646170490483629.
Rabab’ah, Ghaleb, and Rajai Al-Khanji and Muradi Bataineh. 2022. Impoliteness strategies at a Jordanian hospital emergency room. Kervan - International Journal of African and Asian Studies 26(1): 227–251. https://doi.org/10.13135/1825-263X/6902.
Reddy, Vasu. 2002. Perverts and sodomites: homophobia as hate speech in Africa. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 20(3): 163–175. https://doi.org/10.2989/16073610209486308.
Rico, Nick, and Grant Devon. 2019. Reaching muslims from the bully pulpit: analyzing modern presidential discourse on Islam and muslims from FDR to Trump. International Journal of Communication 13: 4107–4129. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/8705.
Riggins, Stephen Harold. ed. 1997. The language and politics of exclusion: others in discourse. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Schubert, Christian. 2020. Donald Trump’s fake news agenda. In Linguistic inquiries into Donald Trump’s language: from ‘fake news’ to ‘tremendous success’ (pp. xx-xx). Bloomsbury Publishing.
UNESCO. 2023. Addressing hate speech through education: a guide for policy-makers. Paris, France: UNESCO.
United Nations. 1966. International covenant on civil and political rights. Retrieved December 5, 2022, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-civil-and-pol.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1988. News analysis. Case studies of international and national news in the press. Hillsdale. Ni: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1988. News as discourse. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1991. Racism and the press. London: Routledge.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1993. Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society 4(2): 249–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926593004002006.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1993. Discourse, power and access. In Critical discourse analysis, ed. C. R. Caldas. London: Hutchinson.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1993. Elite discourse and racism. Sage.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 1998. Ideology: a multidisciplinary approach. London: Sage.
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 2001. Multidisciplinary CDA: A plea for diversity. In Methods of critical discourse analysis Eds. R. Wodak, & M. Meyer, (pp. 95–120).
Van Dijk, Teun, A. 2005. Racism and discourse in Spain and Latin America. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Van Dijk, Teun A. 2009. Society and discourse: how social contexts influence text and talk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Whillock, Rita Kirk, and David Slayden. eds. 1995. Hate speech. Sage.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical Approval
We confirm that all research was performed in accordance with relevant guidelines/regulations applicable when human participants are involved.
Informed Consent
No consent was obtained because the material we analyzed was published on the Internet and accessible to the public.
Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rabab’ah, G., Hussein, A. & Jarbou, S. Hate Speech in Political Discourse. Int J Semiot Law (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-024-10158-8
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-024-10158-8