Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Morphological awareness and children’s writing: accuracy, error, and invention

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between children’s morphological awareness and their ability to produce accurate morphological derivations in writing. Fifth-grade US students (n = 175) completed two writing tasks that invited or required morphological manipulation of words. We examined both accuracy and error, specifically errors in spelling and errors of the sort we termed morphological inventions, which entailed inappropriate, novel pairings of stems and suffixes. Regressions were used to determine the relationship between morphological awareness, morphological accuracy, and spelling accuracy, as well as between morphological awareness and morphological inventions. Linear regressions revealed that morphological awareness uniquely predicted children’s generation of accurate morphological derivations, regardless of whether or not accurate spelling was required. A logistic regression indicated that morphological awareness was also uniquely predictive of morphological invention, with higher morphological awareness increasing the probability of morphological invention. These findings suggest that morphological knowledge may not only assist children with spelling during writing, but may also assist with word production via generative experimentation with morphological rules during sentence generation. Implications are discussed for the development of children’s morphological knowledge and relationships with writing.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anglin, J. (1993). Vocabulary development: A morphological analysis. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58 (10, Serial No. 238).

  • Baumann, J. F., Edwards, E. C., Boland, E. M., Olejnik, S., & Kame’enui, E. J. (2003). Vocabulary tricks: Effects of instruction in morphology and context on fifth-grade students’ ability to derive and infer word meanings. American Educational Research Journal, 40, 447–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumann, J. F., Edwards, E. C., Font, G., Tereshinski, C. A., Kame’enui, E. J., & Olejnik, S. (2002). Teaching morphemic and contextual analysis to fifth-grade students. Reading Research Quarterly, 37, 150–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., Nagy, W., & Beers, S. (2011). Child writers’ construction and reconstruction of single sentences and construction of multi-sentence texts: Contributions of syntax and transcription to translation. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 151–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. W., & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower’s model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. In J. S. Carlson (Series Ed.) & E. C. Butterfield (Vol. Ed.), Advances in cognition and educational practice, Vol. 2: Children’s writing: Toward a process theory of the development of skilled writing (pp. 57–81). Greenwich, CN: JAI Press.

  • Berninger, V. W., Winn, W. D., Stock, P., Abbott, R. D., Eschen, K., Lin, S.-J., et al. (2008). Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21, 95–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourassa, D. C., & Treiman, R. (2008). Morphological constancy in spelling: A comparison of children with dyslexia and typically developing children. Dyslexia, 14, 155–169.

  • Bourdin, B., & Fayol, M. (1994). Is written language production really more difficult than oral language production? International Journal of Psychology, 29, 591–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowerman, M. (1982). Starting to talk worse: Clues to language acquisition from children’s late speech errors. In S. Strauss (Ed.), U-shaped behavioral growth (pp. 101–145). NewYork, NY: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F. (1988). Knowledge of derivational morphology and spelling ability in fourth, sixth, and eighth graders. Applied Psycholinguistics, 9, 247–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F. (1995). Morphological awareness and early reading achievement. In L. B. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp. 189–209). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Elbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F. (1996). An exploratory study of morphological errors in children’s written stories. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8, 61–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F. (2000). Awareness of the structure and meaning of morphologically complex words: Impact on reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 169–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, J. F., & Stone, C. A. (2005). Exploring the roles of morphemes in word reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 40, 428–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chenoweth, N. A., & Hayes, J. R. (2001). Fluency in writing: Generating text in L1 and L2. Written Communication, 18, 80–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, L. K. (1988). Invented versus traditional spelling in first graders’ writings: Effects on learning to spell and read. Research in the Teaching of English, 22, 281–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deacon, S. H., & Kirby, J. R. (2004). Morphological awareness: Just “more phonological”? The roles of morphological and phonological awareness in reading development. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25, 223–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dellerman, P., Coirier, P., & Marchand, E. (1996). Planning and expertise in argumentative composition. In G. Rijlaarsdam, H. van den Bergh, & M. Couzijn (Eds.), Theories, models, and methods in writing research (pp. 182–195). Amsterdam University Press: Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Derwing, B. L., Smith, M. L., & Wiebe, G. E. (1995). On the role of spelling in morpheme recognition: Experimental studies with children and adults. In L. B. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp. 3–27). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehri, L. C. (1992). Reconceptualizing the development of sight word reading and its relationship to recoding. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 107–143). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fayol, M. (2012). Cognitive processes of children and adults in translating thought in written language in real time: Perspectives from 30 years of programmatic cognitive psychology and linguistics research. In V. W. Berninger (Ed.), Past, present, and future contributions of cognitive writing research to cognitive psychology (pp. 27–59). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). The pregnant pause: An inquiry into the nature of planning. Research in the Teaching of English, 15, 229–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B. R., Petscher, Y., & Bishop, M. D. (2012). The incremental variance of morphological knowledge to reading comprehension in grades 3–10 beyond prior reading comprehension, spelling, and text reading efficiency. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 792–798.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, A. E., & Liberman, I. Y. (1995). The role of phonology and orthography in morphological awareness. In L. B. Feldman (Ed.), Morphological aspects of language processing (pp. 157–188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fromkin, V. A. (Ed.). (1980). Errors in linguistic performance. New York, NY: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, M. F. (1980). Levels of processing in sentence production. In B. Butterworth (Ed.), Language production (pp. 177–220). New York, NY: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, J. R. (1982). An analysis of developmental spelling in GNYS at WRK. The Reading Teacher, 36, 192–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, A. P., & Ahn, S. (2010). A meta-analysis of morphological interventions: Effects on literacy achievement of children with literacy difficulties. Annals of Dyslexia, 60, 183–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, A. P., & Ahn, S. (2013). A meta-analysis of morphological interventions in English: Effects on literacy outcomes for school-age children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17, 257–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, L., McCutchen, D., Schwiebert, C., Quinlan, T., Eva-Wood, A., & Juelis, J. (2003). Morphological development in children’s writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 752–761.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, M. K. (1989). Children’s word structure knowledge: Implications for spelling and decoding instruction. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1, 135–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieffer, M. J., & Lesaux, K. K. (2012). Direct and indirect roles of morphological awareness in the English reading comprehension of native English, Spanish, Filipino, and Vietnamese speakers. Language Learning, 62, 1170–1204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, J. F., White, C., & Snow, C. E. (2010). The words students need. Educational Leadership, 68, 23–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levelt, W. J. M. (1994). The skill of speaking. In P. Bertelson, P. Eelen, & G. d’Ydewalle (Eds.), International perspectives on cognitive science (Vol. 1, pp. 89–103). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBride-Chang, C. (1998). The development of invented spelling. Early Education and Development, 9, 147–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1984). Writing as a linguistic problem. Educational Psychologist, 19, 226–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1988). “Functional automaticity” in children’s writing: A problem of metacognitive control. Written Communication, 5, 306–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (2000). Knowledge acquisition, processing efficiency, and working memory: Implications for a theory of writing. Educational Psychologist, 35, 13–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D., Covill, A., Hoyne, S. H., & Mildes, K. (1994). Individual differences in writing skill: Implications of translating fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 256–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D., Green, L., & Abbott, R. D. (2008). Children’s morphological knowledge: Links to literacy. Reading Psychology, 29, 289–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D., & Logan, B. (2011). Inside incidental word learning: Children’s strategic use of morphological information to infer word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, 46, 334–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D., Stull, C., Herrera, B. L., Lotas, S., & Evans, S. (2014). Putting words to word: Effects of morphological instruction on children’s writing. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 47, 86–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moats, L. C. (2000). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myhill, D. (2008). Towards a linguistic model of sentence development in writing. Language and Education, 22, 271–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, W. E., & Anderson, R. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 304–330.

  • Nagy, W., Berninger, V. W., & Abbott, R. D. (2006). Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 134–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, W. E., & Scott, J. A. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 269–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Governors Association Center for Best Practices. (2010). Common Core State Standards. Washington DC: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/the-standards.

  • Northey, M., McCutchen, D., & Sanders, E. (2014, April). Control of morphological forms during writing predicts essay quality. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Philadelphia, PA.

  • Nunes, T., & Bryant, P. (2006). Improving literacy by teaching morphemes. New York, NY: Routlege.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hare, F. (1973). Sentence combining. Champaign, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouellette, G., & Sénéchal, M. (2008). Pathways to literacy: A study of invented spelling and its role in learning to read. Child Development, 79, 899–913.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reichle, E. D., & Perfetti, C. A. (2003). Morphology in word identification: A word experience model that accounts for morpheme frequency effects. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 219–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rieben, L., Ntamakiliro, L., Gonthier, B., & Fayol, M. (2005). Effects of various early writing practices on reading and spelling. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9, 145–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, H., Patterson, P., & Kantor, M. (1991). Morphological development and writing ability in children and adults. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 22, 228–235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saddler, B., & Graham, S. (2005). The effects of peer-assisted sentence-combining instruction on the writing performance of more and less skilled young writers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 43–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. S. (2008). Morphological awareness skills of English language learners and children with dyslexia. Topics in Language Disorders, 28, 15–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singson, M., Mahony, D., & Mann, V. (2000). The relation between reading ability and morphological skills: Evidence from derivational suffixes. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 12, 219–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., & Davis, C. (1996). Individual difference variables that predict response to training in phonological awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 1–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Treiman, R. (1993). Beginning to spell: A study of first-grade children. New York, NY US: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, A., & Nagy, W. (1989). The acquisition of English derivational morphology. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 649–667.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, R. (1987). Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: AGS Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, R., McGrew, K., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wysocki, K., & Jenkins, J. R. (1987). Deriving word meanings through morphological generalization. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 66–81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The research reported here was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development, Grant P50HD071764, and by the Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education, Grant R305H060073. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the NICHD or the Department of Education.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Deborah McCutchen & Sara Stull

Authors
  1. Deborah McCutchen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sara Stull
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Deborah McCutchen.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

McCutchen, D., Stull, S. Morphological awareness and children’s writing: accuracy, error, and invention. Read Writ 28, 271–289 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9524-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-014-9524-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation