Abstract
In this study, Indigenous Elders in Canada were interviewed to explore their conceptualizations of death and dying, particularly in relation to suicide. Through reflexive thematic analysis, three key themes were developed: Indigenous conceptions of death and dying, Christian influences on views of suicide, and indirect suicide. The theme of Indigenous conceptualizations of death and dying included the subthemes of spirituality and life after death, highlighting the importance of spiritual beliefs in Indigenous culture and knowledge systems. The impact of Christian influences on views of suicide was also explored, with participants discussing the complex nature of the relationship between Christianity and Indigenous peoples. Finally, the theme of indirect suicide was analyzed, referring to deaths resulting from behaviors that do not necessarily fit within the conventional definition of suicide. Overall, this study highlights the importance of honoring Indigenous cultural knowledge in research related to suicide prevention in Indigenous communities.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andrews, T. (2012). What is social constructionism? Grounded Theory Review, 11(1), 39–46. https://groundedtheoryreview.com/2012/06/01/what-is-social-constructionism/
Ansloos, J. (2018). Rethinking indigenous suicide. International Journal of Indigenous Health, 13(2), 8–28. https://doi.org/10.32799/ijih.v13i2.32061
Ansloos, J., Stewart, S., Fellner, K., Goodwill, A., Graham, H., McCormick, R., Harder, H., & Mushquash, C. (2019). Indigenous peoples and professional training in psychology in Canada. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie Canadienne, 60(4), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000189
Ansloos, J., & Dent, E. (2021). “Our spirit is like a fire”: Conceptualizing intersections of mental health, wellness, and spirituality with Indigenous youth leaders across Canada. Journal of Indigenous Social Development, 10(2), 29–53. https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/jisd/article/view/72562/55257
Battiste, M. (2013). Decolonizing education: Nourishing the learning spirit. Purich Publishing.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Browne, A. J., Varcoe, C., Lavoie, J., Smye, V., Wong, S. T., Krause, M., Tu, D., Godwin, O., Khan, K., & Fridkin, A. (2016). Enhancing health care equity with Indigenous populations: Evidence-based strategies from an ethnographic study. BMC Health Services Research, 16(544), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1707-9
Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, & Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. (2018). Tri-Council policy statement: Ethical conduct for research involving humans. Retrieved from https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/policy-politique_tcps2-eptc2_2018.html
Chandler, M. J., & Lalonde, C. (1998). Cultural continuity as a hedge against suicide in Canada’s First Nations. Transcultural Psychiatry, 35(2), 191–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/136346159803500202
Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous research methodologies. SAGE.
Colucci, E. (2012). Culture, cultural meaning(s), and suicide. In E. Colluci & D. Lester (Eds.), Suicide and culture: Understanding the context (pp. 25–46). Hogrefe Publishing.
Cook, C. C. (2014). Religion and spirituality in suicide prevention. In R. C. O’Connor & J. Pirkis (Eds.), The international handbook of suicide prevention: Research, policy and practice (pp. 251–267). John Wiley & Sons.
Dervic, K., Oquendo, M. A., Grunebaum, M. F., Ellis, S., Burke, A. K., & Mann, J. J. (2004). Religious affiliation and suicide attempt. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(12), 2303–2308. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2303
Durkheim, E. (1951). Suicide: A study in sociology (J. A. Spaulding & G. Simpson, Trans.). The Free Press.
Eatough, V., & Smith, J. A. (2008). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (pp. 101–136). SAGE.
Elliott-Groves, E. (2018). Insights from Cowichan: A hybrid approach to understanding suicide in one first nations’ collective. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 48(3), 328–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12364
Ermine, W., Battiste, M., & Barman, J. (1995). Aboriginal epistemology. First Nations Education in Canada: The Circle Unfolds (pp. 101–112). UBC Press.
Esin, C., Fathi, M., & Squire, C. (2014). Narrative Analysis: The Constructionist Approach. In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis (pp. 203–216). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446282243
Fellner, K. D., Ansloos, J. P., Ouellette, N. L., & Villebrun, G. D. (2020). Reconciling relations: Shifting counselling psychology to address truth and reconciliation. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 54(4), 638–660. https://cjc-rcc.ucalgary.ca/article/view/70661
Fellner, K. D. (2016). Returning to our medicines: Decolonizing and Indigenizing mental health services to better serve Indigenous communities in urban spaces (Doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia).
First Nations Information Governance Centre. (2014). Ownership, control, access and possession (OCAP): The path to First Nations information governance. Retrieved from https://achh.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/OCAP_FNIGC.pdf
Gergen, K. J. (2014). Social constructionism. In Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology (pp. 1772–1776). Springer.
Gould, M. S., & Kramer, R. A. (2001). Youth suicide prevention. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 31(March), 6–31. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.31.1.5.6.24219
Government of Canada. (2017). Indigenous peoples and communities. https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100013785/1529102490303
Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (pp. 191–215). Sage Publications Ltd.
Hjelmeland, H. (2012a). Cultural context is crucial in suicide research and prevention. Crisis, 33(4), 169–174. https://doi.org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000097
Hjelmeland, H. (2012b). Suicide research and prevention: The importance of culture in “Biological Times”. In E. Colucci., & D. Lester (Eds.), Suicide and culture: Understanding the context (pp. 3–23). Hogrefe Publishing.
Jaworski, K. (2010). The gender-ing of suicide. Australian Feminist Studies, 25(63), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/08164640903499752
Kirmayer, L. J., Simpson, C., & Cargo, M. (2011). Healing traditions: Culture, community and mental health promotion with Canadian Aboriginal peoples. Australasian Psychiatry, 19(Supplement 1), S15–S18. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1038-5282.2003.02010.x
Kirmayer, L. J. & Aboriginal Healing Foundation (Canada). (2007). Suicide among aboriginal people in Canada. Aboriginal Healing Foundation. https://www.deslibris.ca/ID/250873
Klonsky, E. D., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2007). Self-injury: A research review for the practitioner. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 63(11), 1045–1056. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20412
Kovach, M. (2009). Indigenous methodologies: Characteristics, conversations, and contexts. University of Toronto Press.
Kovach, M. (2010). Conversation method in Indigenous research. First Peoples Child & Family Review, 5(1), 40–48. https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/fpcfr/2010-v5-n1-fpcfr05263/1069060ar/abstract/
Kral, M. J. (2016). Suicide and suicide prevention among Inuit in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 61(11), 688–695.
Kumar, M. B., & Tjepkema, M. (2011). Suicide among First Nations people, Métis, and Inuit (2011–2016): Findings from the Canadian Census Health and Environment Cohort (CanCHEC). 99, 23. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/99-011-x/99-011-x2019001-eng.htm
Lavallée, L. F. (2009). Practical application of an Indigenous research framework and two qualitative Indigenous research methods: Sharing circles and Anishnaabe symbol-based reflection. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 8(1), 21–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406909008001
Lester, D. (1992–1993). Suicide and culture. Homeostasis in Health and Disease, 34(1–2), 96–102. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-33814-001
MacNeil, M. S. (2008). An epidemiologic study of aboriginal adolescent risk in Canada: The meaning of suicide. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 21(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6171.2008.00117.x
Malloch, L. (1989). Indian medicine, Indian health. Canadian Woman Studies, 10(2–3), 105–114. https://cws.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cws/article/view/11187
Marsh, I. (2010). Suicide: Foucault, history, and truth. Cambridge University Press.
Pescosolido, B. A., & Georgianna, S. (1989). Durkheim, suicide, and religion: Toward a network theory of suicide. American Sociological Review, 54(1), 33–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095660
Robinson, O. C., & Smith, J. A. (2010). Investigating the form and dynamics of crisis episodes in early adulthood: The application of a composite qualitative method. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 7(2), 170–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880802699084
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. (1995). Choosing life: Special report on suicide among Aboriginal people. Supply and Services Canada.
Schneidman, E. (1985). Definition of suicide. Jason Aronson.
Smith, L. T. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and Indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). Zed Books.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC). (2015). The survivors speak: A report of the truth and reconciliation commission of Canada. https://web.archive.org/web/20200229221451/http://www.trc.ca/assets/pdf/Survivors_Speak_English_Web.pdf
Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing research: Indigenous storywork as methodology. Zed Books.
Wallerstein, N., & Duran, B. (2010). Community-based participatory research contributions to intervention research: The intersection of science and practice to improve health equity. American Journal of Public Health, 100(S1), S40–S46. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.184036
White, J. (2017). What can critical suicidology do? Death Studies, 41(8), 472–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2017.1332901
White, J., & Kral, M. J. (2014). Re-thinking youth suicide: Language, culture, and power. Journal for Social Action in Counseling and Psychology, 6(1), 122–142. https://doi.org/10.33043/JSACP.6.1.122-142
White, J. (2007). Working in the midst of ideological and cultural differences: Critically reflecting on youth suicide prevention in indigenous communities. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy, 41(4), 213–227. https://cjc-rcc.ucalgary.ca/article/view/58822
Willig, C. (2004). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method (Repr). Open Univ.
Wilson, S. (2008). Research as ceremony: Indigenous research methods. Fernwood Publishing.
Funding
The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support was received during the preparation of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by SR and JA. Supervision was conducted by JA. The first draft of the manuscript was written by SR and JA, reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors read, contributed, and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Ethics approval
This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of University of Toronto (12/11/2021; No: 41949).
Consent to participate
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Consent to publish
The authors affirm that human research participants provided informed consent for publication of qualitative materials presented in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Rowe, S., Ansloos, J.P. Understanding Suicide from an Indigenous Cultural Lens: Insights from Elders in Canada. J Relig Health 63, 1038–1057 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-024-02022-7
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-024-02022-7