Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Unique Contributions of Positive Schemas for Understanding Child and Adolescent Life Satisfaction and Happiness

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Much research has examined negative cognitive schemas as associates of psychopathology. Although some research has established relations between positive cognitive schemas and psychopathology, little research has examined positive cognitive schemas in the context of well-being among children and adolescents. In the current study, contributions of positive schemas to two indicators of well-being, namely happiness and life satisfaction, were examined. Specifically we examined how positive schemas predict well-being beyond negative schemas, whether age and gender moderate the relations between positive schemas and well-being, and the contributions of specific positive schema themes to well-being. 282 child and adolescent boys (n = 122) and girls (n = 160) aged 8–18 (M = 13.37, SD = 2.18), completed measures of positive schemas, negative schemas, life satisfaction, and happiness. Results indicated that positive schemas related to life satisfaction and happiness beyond negative schemas, supporting the importance of examining positive schemas in models of well-being. Positive schemas were more strongly tied to happiness in older adolescents versus younger children, but the relations between positive schemas and life satisfaction did not vary as a function of age. Gender effects indicate that the relation between positive schemas and life satisfaction and happiness was stronger for females than for males. When the relative contributions of positive schema themes (i.e., trust, worthiness, optimism, success, self-efficacy) were explored in the prediction of life satisfaction and happiness, worthiness emerged as the strongest predictor. Results emphasize the importance of considering positive schemas in models of well-being among children and adolescents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Cognitive vulnerability to depression in children and adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In J. R. Z. Abela & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Depression in children and adolescents (pp. 35–78). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Brown, G., Steer, R. A., Eidelson, J. I., & Riskind, J. H. (1987). Differentiating anxiety from depression: A test of the cognitive content-specificity hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 179–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burke, R. J., & Weir, T. (1978). Sex differences in adolescent life stress, social support, and well-being. Journal of Psychology, 98(2), 277–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caprara, G. V., Steca, P., Gerbino, M., Paciello, M., & Vecchio, G. M. (2006). Looking for adolescents’ well-being: Self-efficacy beliefs as determinants of positive thinking and happiness. Epidemiologia E Psichiatria Sociale, 15(01), 30–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casas, F., Sarriera, J. C., Alfaro, J., González, M., Malo, S., Bertran, I., et al. (2012). Testing the personal wellbeing index on 12–16 year-old adolescents in 3 different countries with 2 new items. Social Indicators Research, 105(3), 461–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A., Beck, A. T., & Stewart, B. L. (1990). Cognitive specificity and positive–negative affectivity: Complementary or contradictory views on anxiety and depression? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 148–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummins, R. A., & Nistico, H. (2002). Maintaining life satisfaction: The role of positive cognitive bias. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 37–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dew, T., & Huebner, E. S. (1994). Adolescents’ perceived quality of life: An exploratory investigation. Journal of School Psychology, 32(2), 185–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55(1), 34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Sandvik, E., & Pavot, W. (1991). Happiness is the frequency, not the intensity, of positive versus negative affect. Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, 21, 119–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003a). Personality, culture, and subjective well-being: Emotional and cognitive evaluations of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Scollon, C. N., & Lucas, R. E. (2003b). The evolving concept of subjective well-being: The multifaceted nature of happiness. Advances in Cell Aging and Gerontology, 15, 187–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dozois, D. J. A., & Beck, A. T. (2008). Cognitive schemas, beliefs, and assumptions. In K. S. Dobson & D. J. A. Dozois (Eds.), Risk factors in depression. Oxford: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedmann, J. S., Lumley, M. N., & Lerman, B. (2016). Cognitive schemas as longitudinal predictors of self-reported adolescent depressive symptoms and resilience. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 45(1), 32–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Froh, J. J., Yurkewicz, C., & Kashdan, T. B. (2009). Gratitude and subjective well-being in early adolescence: Examining gender differences. Journal of Adolescence, 32(3), 633–650.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Funk, B. A, I. I. I., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2006). Reliability and validity of a brief life satisfaction scale with a high school sample. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(1), 41–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Cheng, H. (2000). Perceived parental behaviour, self-esteem and happiness. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 35(10), 463–470.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldbeck, L., Schmitz, T. G., Besier, T., Herschbach, P., & Henrich, G. (2007). Life satisfaction decreases during adolescence. Quality of Life Research, 16(6), 969–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (1999). Development of gender differences in depression: Description and possible explanations. Annals of Medicine, 31(6), 372–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holder, M. D., & Coleman, B. (2009). The contribution of social relationships to children’s happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(3), 329–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holder, M. D., & Klassen, A. (2010). Temperament and happiness in children. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11(4), 419–439.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holder, M. D., Coleman, B., & Wallace, J. M. (2010). Spirituality, religiousness, and happiness in children aged 8–12 years. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 131–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holte, A., Barry, M. M., Bekkhus, M., Borge, A. I. H., Bowes, L., Casas, F., et al. (2014). Psychology of child well-being (pp. 555–631). Netherlands: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hope, T. L., Adams, C., Reynolds, L., Powers, D., Perez, R. A., & Kelley, M. L. (1999). Parent versus self-report: Contributions toward diagnosis of adolescent psychopathology. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 21(4), 349–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, E. S., Gilman, R., & Laughlin, J. E. (1999). A multimethod investigation of the multidimensionality of children’s well-being reports: Discriminant validity of life satisfaction and self-esteem. Social Indicators Research, 46(1), 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, E. S., Seligson, J. L., Valois, R. F., & Suldo, S. M. (2006). A review of the brief multidimensional students’ life satisfaction scale. Social Indicators Research, 79(3), 477–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaenicke, C., Hammen, C., Zupan, B., Hiroto, D., Gordon, D., Adrian, C., et al. (1987). Cognitive vulnerability in children at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15(4), 559–572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joiner, T. E, Jr., Catanzaro, S. J., & Laurent, J. (1996). Tripartite structure of positive and negative affect, depression, and anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(3), 401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jose, P. E. (2013). ModGraph-I: A programme to compute cell means for the graphical display of moderational analyses: The internet version, Version 3.0. Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved September 9, 2014, from http://pavlov.psyc.vuw.ac.nz/paul-jose/modgraph/.

  • Keyes, C. L. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(2), 207–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keyfitz, L., Lumley, M. N., Hennig, K. H., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2013). The role of positive schemas in child psychopathology and resilience. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 37(1), 97–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, A. D., Huebner, E. S., Malone, P. S., & Valois, R. F. (2011). Life satisfaction and student engagement in adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(3), 249–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 616.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lumley, M. N., Dozois, D. J. A., Hennig, K. H., & Marsh, A. (2012). Cognitive organization, perceptions of parenting and depression symptoms in early adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(4), 300–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46(2), 137–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131(6), 803.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod, A., & Moore, R. (2000). Positive thinking revisited: Positive cognitions, well-being and mental health. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahon, N. E., Yarcheski, A., & Yarcheski, T. J. (2005). Happiness as related to gender and health in early adolescents. Clinical Nursing Research, 14(2), 175–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marques, S. C., Lopez, S. J., & Mitchell, J. (2013). The role of hope, spirituality and religious practice in adolescents’ life satisfaction: Longitudinal findings. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(1), 251–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClain, L., & Abramson, L. Y. (1995). Self-schemas, stress, and depressed mood in college students. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 19(4), 419–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, G., Huebner, E. S., & Laughlin, J. E. (2000). Life events, self-concept, and adolescents’ positive subjective well-being. Psychology in the Schools, 37(3), 281–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, C. G., Huebner, E. S., & Suldo, S. (2002). Relationships among stressful life events, temperament, problem behavior, and global life satisfaction in adolescents. Psychology in the Schools, 39(6), 677–687.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moksnes, U. K., & Espnes, G. A. (2013). Self-esteem and life satisfaction in adolescents—gender and age as potential moderators. Quality of Life Research, 22(10), 2921–2928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mruk, C. (2006). Self-esteem research, theory, and practice: Toward a positive psychology of self-esteem (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Natvig, G. K., Albrektsen, G., & Qvarnstrøm, U. (2003). Associations between psychosocial factors and happiness among school adolescents. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 9(3), 166–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2006). Character strengths and happiness among young children: Content analysis of parental descriptions. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(3), 323–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piko, B. F., & Keresztes, N. (2006). Physical activity, psychosocial health and life goals among youth. Journal of Community Health, 31(2), 136–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prieto, S. L., Cole, D. A., & Tageson, C. W. (1992). Depressive self-schemas in clinic and nonclinic children. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16(5), 521–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, C. L., Linley, P. A., & Maltby, J. (2009). Youth life satisfaction: A review of the literature. Journal of Happiness Studies, 10(5), 583–630.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, M. D., & Kirkeby, B. S. (2005). Happiness as a belief system: Individual differences and priming in emotion judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(8), 1134–1144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, D. M., Sitkin, S. B., Burt, R. S., & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 393–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Spirito, A., & Bennett, B. (1984). The children’s depression inventory: A systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52(6), 955.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4(3), 219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction (Vol. 55, No. 1, p. 5). American Psychological Association.

  • Seligson, J. L., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2003). Preliminary validation of the brief multidimensional students’ life satisfaction scale (BMSLSS). Social Indicators Research, 61(2), 121–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligson, J. L., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2005). An investigation of a brief life satisfaction scale with elementary school children. Social Indicators Research, 73(3), 355–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shogren, K. A., Lopez, S. J., Wehmeyer, M. L., Little, T. D., & Pressgrove, C. L. (2006). The role of positive psychology constructs in predicting life satisfaction in adolescents with and without cognitive disabilities: An exploratory study. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1), 37–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice- friendly meta- analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 467–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, K., Ruch, W., & Junnarkar, M. (2015). Effect of the demographic variables and psychometric properties of the personal well-being index for school children in India. Child Indicators Research, 8(3), 571–585.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, P. (2007). Early maladaptive schemas in children: Stability and differences between a community and a clinic referred sample. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 14(1), 10–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stallard, P., & Rayner, H. (2005). The development and preliminary evaluation of a schema questionnaire for children (SQC). Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 33(2), 217–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, D. J. (2014). Fast interaction (1.5.0). Computer application software. Retrieved from http://www.statscanbefun.com.

  • Suldo, S. M., Frank, M. J., Chappel, A. M., Albers, M. M., & Bateman, L. P. (2014). American high school students’ perceptions of determinants of life satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, 118(2), 485–514.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suldo, S. M., Minch, D. R., & Hearon, B. V. (2015). Adolescent life satisfaction and personality characteristics: Investigating relationships using a five factor model. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16(4), 965–983.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103(2), 193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terry, T., & Huebner, E. S. (1995). The relationship between self-concept and life satisfaction in children. Social Indicators Research, 35(1), 39–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valois, R. F., Zullig, K. J., Huebner, E. S., & Drane, J. W. (2001). Relationship between life satisfaction and violent behaviors among adolescents. American Journal of Health Behavior, 25(4), 353–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vecchio, G. M., Gerbino, M., Pastorelli, C., Del Bove, G., & Caprara, G. V. (2007). Multi-faceted self-efficacy beliefs as predictors of life satisfaction in late adolescence. Personality and Individual Differences, 43(7), 1807–1818.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Carey, G. (1988). Positive and negative affectivity and their relation to anxiety and depressive disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (Eds.). (2002). The development of competence beliefs, expectancies for success, and achievement values from childhood through adolescence. In The development of achievement motivation (pp. 91–120). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Positive clinical psychology: A new vision and strategy for integrated research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 819–829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. E. (1998). The young schema questionnaire—shortened inventory. http://www.schematherapy.com. Copyright Jeffrey Young and Gary Brown.

  • Zullig, K. J., Valois, R. F., Huebner, E. S., Oeltmann, J. E., & Drane, J. W. (2001). Relationship between perceived life satisfaction and adolescents’ substance abuse. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29(4), 279–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada

    R. M. Tomlinson, L. Keyfitz & M. N. Lumley

  2. Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, M3J 1P3, Canada

    J. S. Rawana

Authors
  1. R. M. Tomlinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. L. Keyfitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. J. S. Rawana
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. M. N. Lumley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to R. M. Tomlinson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Tomlinson, R.M., Keyfitz, L., Rawana, J.S. et al. Unique Contributions of Positive Schemas for Understanding Child and Adolescent Life Satisfaction and Happiness. J Happiness Stud 18, 1255–1274 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9776-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-016-9776-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation