Abstract
We employed cumulative dis/advantage and ecological theories to identify risk and protective factors at the individual, family, institutional, and societal levels that promote employment and health among low-income older adults. The authors conducted semi-structured interviews with 26 older adults who participated in a federally funded training and employment program for low-income individuals 55+ years of age. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis. Approximately 60% of participants had experienced a lifetime of disadvantages (e.g. low levels of formal education, poor physical and mental health, enduring poverty, physically demanding jobs). Surprisingly, 40% of respondents had higher levels of education, excellent or good health, consistent lifetime employment, and personal drive to obtain employment, but had experienced a major health, economic, or social shock that resulted in unemployment, poverty and at times, homelessness. Their life stories, as well as the extant literature, enabled us to understand the many risk and protective factors across the ecological framework associated with employment and improved health. A holistic, strengths-based approach, which utilizes the full scope of biopsychosocial and service assessments is required to bolster employment and health of low-income older adults.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aday, R. H., & Kehoe, G. (2008). Working in old age: Benefits of participation in the senior community service employment program. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health,23(1–2), 125–145.
Anderson, K. A., Richardson, V. E., Fields, N. L., & Harootyan, R. A. (2013). Inclusion or exclusion? Exploring barriers to employment for low-income older adults. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 56(4), 318–334. https://doi.org/10.1080/01634372.2013.777006.
Anderson, M. A., Brown, E., Cavadel, E. W., Derr, M., & Kauff, J. F. (2018). Using psychology-informed strategies to promote self-sufficiency: A review of innovative programs. Retrieved August 6, 2019 from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/opre/goals_program_brief_508.pdf.
Armstrong-Stassen, M. (2008). Organizational practices and the post-retirement employment experience of older workers. Human Resource Management Journal,18, 36–53.
Armstrong-Stassen, M., & Ursel, N. D. (2009). Perceived organizational support, career satisfaction, and the retention of older workers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,82, 201–220.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology,3, 77–101.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22457-4.
Carolan, K., Gonzales, E., Lee, K., & Harootyan, B. (2018). Institutional and individual factors affecting health and employment among low-income women with chronic health conditions. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gby149.
Dannefer, D. (2003). Cumulative advantage/disadvantage and the life course: Cross-fertilizing age and social science theory. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 58B(6), S327–S337. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.6.S327.
Dannefer, D. (2018). Systemic and reflexive: Foundations of cumulative dis/advantage and life-course processes. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gby118.
Eyster, L., Johnson, R., & Toder, E. (2008). Current strategies to employ and retain older workers. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing.
Gonzales, E. (2013). An examination on un-retirement: Retirees returning to work. All Theses and Dissertations. 1132. https://openscholarship.wustl.edu/etd/1132.
Gonzales, E., Lee, Y., & Brown, C. (2015). Back to work? Not everyone. Examining the longitudinal relationships between informal caregiving and paid-work after formal retirement. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv095.
Gonzales, E., Lee, J. Y., Padula, W. V., & Jung, L. S. (2018). Exploring the consequences of discrimination and health for retirement by race and ethnicity: Results from the health and retirement study. Center for Retirement Research at Boston College.
Gordon, F., & Barrington, V. (2016). Strengthening supports for low-income older adults and family caregivers. Justice in Aging. Retrieved from http://www.justiceinaging.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/FINALAdvocacy-Starts-at-Home_Strengthening-Supports-for-Low-Income-Adults-and-Family-Caregivers.pdf
Gross, D. (2002). Different needs, different strategies: A manual for training low-income, older workers. United States Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration. Florida Policy Exchange Center on Aging
Harris, K., Krygsman, S., Waschenko, J., & Laliberte Rudman, D. (2017). Ageism and the older worker: A scoping review. The Gerontologist,58(2), e1–e14.
Hoare, C. (2015). Resilience in the Elderly. Journal of Aging Life Care. Retrieved April 1, 2019 from https://www.aginglifecarejournal.org/resilience-in-the-elderly/
Hodge, D. R., Hong, P. Y. P., & Choi, S. (2019). Spirituality, employment hope, and grit: Modeling the relationship among underemployed urban African Americans. Social Work Research,43(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svy034.
Hong, P. Y. P. (2016). Transforming impossible into possible (TIP): A bottom-up practice in workforce development for low-income jobseekers. Environment and Social Psychology,1(2), 93–104. https://doi.org/10.18063/ESP.2016.02.008.
Hong, P. Y. P., Choi, S., & Key, W. (2018). Psychological self-sufficiency: A bottom-up theory of change in workforce development. Social Work Research,42(1), 22–32. https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svx025.
James, J. B., Besen, E., & Pitt-Catsouphes, M. (2011). Resilience in the workplace: Job conditions that buffer negative attitudes toward older workers. Resilience in aging (pp. 331–349). New York: Springer.
Johnson, R. W., & Karamcheva, N. S. (2017). What explains educational disparities in older adults’ propensity to work? Journal of Organizational Psychology,17(6), 91–111.
Kadefors, R., & Hanse, J. J. (2012). Employers’ attitudes toward older workers and obstacles and opportunities for the older unemployed to reenter working life. Nordic Journal of Working Life Studies,2(3), 29–47.
Kanfer, R., Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2013). Goals and motivation related to work in later adulthood: An organizing framework. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,22(3), 253–264.
Key, W., Park, J. H., & Hong, P. Y. P. (2019). The significance of grit from social support and health determinants. Social Work & Social Sciences Review,20(1), 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1921/swssr.v20i1.1121.
Kogan, D., Betesh, H., Negoita, M., Salzman, J., Paulen, L., Cuza, H., Potamites, L., Berk, J., Wolfson, C. and Cloud, P. (2012). Evaluation of the Senior Community Service Employment Program SCSEP Process and Outcomes Study (No. 036e4665651e4fa2a4213410aa90160e). Mathematica Policy Research.
Kok, A. A., Van Nes, F., Deeg, D. J., Widdershoven, G., & Huisman, M. (2018). “Tough times have become good times”: Resilience in older adults with a low socioeconomic position. The Gerontologist,58(5), 843–852.
Marchiondo, L., Gonzales, E., & Ran, S. (2015). Development and validation of the workplace age discrimination scale (WADS). Journal of Business and Psychology, 31(4), 493–513. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-015-9425-6.
Marchiondo, L., Gonzales, E., & Williams. L. (2017). Trajectories of perceived workplace age discrimination and long-term associations with mental, self-rated, and occupational health. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbx095.
Mitchell, J. (2013). Who are the long-term unemployed? The Urban Institute. Retrieved August 6, 2019 from https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/23911/412885-Who-Are-the-Long-Term-Unemployed-.PDF.
Morrow-Howell, N., Gonzales, E., Matz-Costa, C., James, J., & Putnam, P. (2018). Advance long and productive lives. In R. Fong, J. Lubben, & R. P. Barth (Eds.), Grand challenges for social work and society. New York and Washington, DC: Oxford University Press/NASW Press.
Nakai, Y., Chang, B., Snell, A. F., & Fluckinger, C. D. (2011). Profiles of mature job seekers: Connecting needs and desires to work characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior,32(2), 155–172.
Pak, K., Kooij, D. T., De Lange, A. H., & Van Veldhoven, M. J. (2018). Human Resource Management and the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working: A review of quantitative studies. Human Resource Management Review,29, 336–352.
Slack, T., & Jensen, L. (2008). Employment hardship among older workers: Does residential and gender inequality extend into older age? The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences,63(1), S15–S24.
Smith, P. M., Cawley, C., Williams, A., & Mustard, C. (2019). Male/female differences in the impact of caring for elderly relatives on labor market attachment and hours of work: 1997–2015. Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz026.
Smyer, M., & Pitt-Catsouphes, M. (2007). The meanings of work for older workers. Generations,31(1), 23–30.
Steenstra, I., Cullen, K., Irvin, E., Van Eerd, D., Alavinia, M., Beaton, D., et al. (2017). A systematic review of interventions to promote work participation in older workers. Journal of Safety Research,60, 93–102.
Sum, A., Khatiwada, I., & Trubskyy, M. (2011). The labor market experiences and problems of America’s low income older workers in recent years. Public Policy and Aging Report,21(1), 18–28.
Szinovacz, M. E. (2011). Introduction: The aging workforce: Challenges for societies, employers, and older workers. Journal of Aging & Social Policy,23(2), 95–100.
Uphoff, E. P., Pickett, K. E., Cabieses, B., Small, N., & Wright, J. (2013). A systematic review of the relationships between social capital and socioeconomic inequalities in health: A contribution to understanding the psychosocial pathway of health inequalities. International Journal for Equity in Health,12(1), 54.
US Department of Labor. (2001). The nine “best practices” of highly effective SCSEP projects. Washington, DC: Employment and Training Administration and the National Council on Aging Inc.
Acknowledgements
We thank Rachel Whetung, MSW/MPH student at New York University, Silver School of Social Work, for her assistance with the literature review. Sources of funding include the Senior Service America, Inc., (PIs: Gonzales and Harootyan), National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities Loan Repayment Program (PI: Gonzales), the Peter T. Paul Career Development Award (PI: Gonzales), and New York University’s Silver School of Social Work Start-up Funds.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
EG and RH were the principal investigators on the original research project. KL, EG, and RH led data collection. KL led secondary data analysis for this study, with EG and RH. EG led the writing of the initial manuscript and revisions, with KL contributing especially to the methods and results section. All authors contributed to this manuscript.
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gonzales, E., Lee, K. & Harootyan, B. Voices from the Field: Ecological Factors that Promote Employment and Health Among Low-Income Older Adults with Implications for Direct Social Work Practice. Clin Soc Work J 48, 211–222 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-019-00719-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-019-00719-x