Abstract
The quality of the parent–infant interaction is essential for the infant’s development and is most objectively measured by observation. The existing observational tools for assessing parent–infant interaction were identified and described, and their psychometric soundness was evaluated. Twenty electronic databases from inception through June 2013 were searched. Validity was evaluated in five domains (test content, response process, internal structure, relations to other variables, and consequences). Of the 23,961 citations identified, 24 tools were included. Most tools demonstrated a valid rating procedure, reproducibility, and discriminant validity, based on studies with credible quality. The tools lacked factorial and predictive validity, and standardized norms. Further refinement of the existing tools is needed, particularly in the domains of content validity and consequential validity. The synthesized validity evidence and descriptions of the tools reported in this review might guide clinicians and researchers in the selection of an appropriate tool.
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References
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions to the review: Linda Mische and Sophie Kröger for their help in reviewing articles; Klaus-Dieter Papke for his support in the development of the search strategy; Justine König for her literature order; Ina Weitkamp for her review of the manuscript; and Jessica Terese Müller for her linguistic revision of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
MEDLINE (OVID) Search Strategy
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1.
mothers/ OR mother$.mp OR parents/ OR parent$.mp OR fathers/ OR father$.mp OR caregivers/ OR caregiv$.mp OR maternal behavior/ OR maternal$.mp OR paternal behavior/ OR paternal$.mp
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2.
infant/ OR infant behavior/ OR infant$.mp OR baby$.mp OR babie$.mp
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3.
1 and 2
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4.
mother$-infant$.mp OR infant$-mother$.mp OR father$-infant$.mp OR infant$-father$.mp OR parent$-infant$.mp OR infant$-parent$.mp OR caregiver$-infant$.mp OR infant-caregiver$.mp OR maternal$-infant$.mp OR infant$-maternal$.mp OR paternal$-infant$.mp OR infant$-paternal$.mp OR mother$-bab$.mp OR bab$-mother$.mp OR father$-bab$.mp OR bab$-father$.mp OR parent$-bab$.mp OR bab$-parent$.mp OR caregiver$-bab$.mp OR bab$-caregiv$.mp OR maternal$-bab$.mp OR bab$-maternal$.mp OR paternal$-bab$.mp OR bab$-paternal$.mp
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5.
3 or 4
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6.
interaction$.mp OR interactiv$.mp OR communication/ OR communicat$.mp OR nonverbal communication/ OR nonverbal communicat$.mp OR dyadic behavio$.mp OR interpersonal relations/ OR interpersonal relation$.mp OR mother–child relations/ OR mother–child relation$.mp OR father–child relations/ OR father–child relation$.mp
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7.
5 and 6
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8.
observation/ OR observation$.mp OR behavio$ cod$.mp OR behavio$ assessment$.mp OR behavio$ measure$.mp OR rat$ scale$.mp OR cod$ system$.mp OR microanalys$.mp OR checklist/ OR checklist$.mp OR videotape recording/ OR videotap$.mp OR video$ record$.mp
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9.
7 and 8
Appendix 2
References of Articles Describing or Psychometrically Evaluating Direct Observational Tools
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Aksan, N., Kochanska, G., & Ortmann, M. R. (2006). Mutually Responsive Orientation between parents and their young children: Toward methodological advances in the science of relationships. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 833–848. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.833.
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Allen, D., & St Arnaud, S. (1994). NCAST: An effective nursing tool for assessing family interaction AARN Newsletter, 50, 14–15.
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Als, H., Tronick, E., & Brazelton, T. B. (1979). Analysis of face-to-face interaction in infant–adult dyads. In M. E. Lamb, S. J. Suomi & G. Stephenson (Eds.), Social interaction analysis: Methodological issues (pp. 33–76). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
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Baird, S. M., Haas, L., McCormick, K., Carruth, C., & Turner, K. D. (1992). Approaching an objective system for observation and measurement: Infant–Parent Social Interaction Code. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 12(4), 544–571. doi:10.1177/027112149201200410.
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Barnard, K., Eyres, S. J., Lobo, M. L., & Snyder, C. (1983). An ecological paradigm for assessment and intervention. In T. B. Brazelton & B. M. Lester (Eds.), New approaches to developmental screening of infants (pp. 199–218). New York, NY: Elsevier.
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Barnard, K. E., Hammond, M. A., Booth, C. L., Bee, H. L., Mitchell, S. K., & Spieker, S. J. (1989). Measurement and meaning of parent–child interaction. In C. L. F. Morrison & D. Keating (Eds.), Applied developmental psychology (3 ed., pp. 39–80). New York, NY: Academic Press.
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Barone, L., & Biringen, Z. (2007). Le scale per la valutazione della disponibilità emozionale [Emotional Availability Scales - EAS]. In L. Barone (Ed.), Emozioni e sviluppo. Percorsi tipici e atipici. Rome, Italy: Carocci.
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Belsky, J., Taylor, D. G., & Rovine, M. (1984). The Pennsylvania Infant and Family Development Project, II: The development of reciprocal interaction in the mother–infant dyad. Child Development, 55(3), 706–717. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.ep12422849.
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Bernstein, V. J., Hans, S. L., & Percansky, C. (1991). Advocating for the young child in need through strengthening the parent–child relationship. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 20(1), 28–41. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2001_5.
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Bernstein, V. J., Hans, S. L., & Percansky, C. (1992). Parent–Infant Observation Guide for program planning around feeding and other daily routines. Unpublished manual. Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago. Chicago, IL.
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Bernstein, V. J., Percansky, C., & Hans, S. L. (1987). Screening for social-emotional impairment in infants born to teenage mothers. Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Baltimore, MD.
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Biringen, Z. (1998, April). “Apparent sensitivity”: A methodological note and a proposed link with attachment. Infant Behavior and Development, 21, Supplement, 28. doi:10.1016/S0163-6383(98)91243-7.
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Biringen, Z. (2000). Emotional availability: Conceptualization and research findings. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 104–114. doi:10.1037/h0087711.
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Biringen, Z. (2005). Training and reliability issues with the Emotional Availability Scales. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(4), 404–405. doi:10.1002/imhj.20060.
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Biringen, Z. (2008). Emotional Availability (EA) Scales, 4th Edition. Infancy/early childhood version. Boulder, CO: Emotionalavailability.com.
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Biringen, Z., Batten, R., Neelan, P., Altenhofen, S., Swaim, R., Bruce, A.,… Zachary, V. (2010). Emotional availability (EA): The assessment of and intervention for global parent–child relational quality. Journal of Experiential Psychotherapy, 49, 3–9.
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Biringen, Z., Damon, J., Grigg, W., Mone, J., Pipp-Siegel, S., Skillern, S., & Stratton, J. (2005). Emotional availability: Differential predictions to infant attachment and kindergarten adjustment based on observation time and context. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(4), 295–308. doi:10.1002/imhj.20054.
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Biringen, Z., & Easterbrooks, M. (2012). Emotional availability: Concept, research, and window on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 24(01), 1–8. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000617.
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Biringen, Z., Emde, R. N., Brown, D., Lowe, L., Myers, S., & Nelson, D. (1999). Emotional availability and emotion communication in naturalistic mother–infant interactions: Evidence for gender relations. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 14(4), 463–478.
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Biringen, Z., & Robinson, J. (1991). Emotional availability in mother–child interactions: A reconceptualization for research. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61(2), 258–271. doi:10.1037/h0079238.
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Boechler, V. L. (2000). Predictors of father–child Interaction measured by the Nursing Child Assessment Teaching Scale. Master’s thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
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Boffman, J. L., Clark, N. J., & Helsel, D. (1997). Can NCAST and HOME assessment scales be used with Hmong refugees? Pediatric Nursing, 23(3), 235–244.
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Lotzin, A., Lu, X., Kriston, L. et al. Observational Tools for Measuring Parent–Infant Interaction: A Systematic Review. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 18, 99–132 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0180-z
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-015-0180-z