Abstract
Aim
Work engagement is an indicator of work-related well-being. Taking a salutogenic perspective, this study aims to examine work engagement within the effort-reward imbalance (ERI) model. To foster our understanding of work engagement, we analyzed relationships of the ERI model subscales effort, esteem reward, status reward and security reward as well as overcommitment with global work engagement and its subscales (vigor, dedication, absorption).
Subjects and methods
Eight hundred eleven police officers participated in a cross-sectional health-monitoring survey in a German police department. Regression analyses were conducted.
Results
The ERI ratio was negatively related to measures of work engagement (β = −0.30 to −0.25). Whereas esteem (β = 0.23 to 0.19) and security reward (β = 0.20 to 0.16) positively predicted global work engagement as well as vigor, dedication and absorption, overcommitment showed a negative association with vigor (β = −0.14). The regression models explained up to 23% of the variance in work engagement or its subscales.
Conclusion
An imbalance between effort and reward is associated with reduced work engagement in the sample of police officers. While effort is not accountable for reduced work engagement, esteem and security rewards are capable of promoting work engagement. Workplace interventions at the level of the supervisors and the department as well as public image campaigns may promote rewards in police work to foster work engagement.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allisey A, Rodwell J, Noblet A (2016) An application of an extended effort-reward imbalance model to police absenteeism behaviour. Pers Rev 45:663–680. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-06-2014-0125
Backé E-M, Seidler A, Latza U, Rossnagel K, Schumann B (2012) The role of psychosocial stress at work for the development of cardiovascular diseases: a systematic review. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 85:67–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-011-0643-6
Bakker AB, Demerouti E (2008) Towards a model of work engagement. Career Dev Int 13:209–223. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810870476
Bakker AB, Demerouti E (2017) Job demands-resources theory: taking stock and looking forward. J Occup Health Psychol 22:273–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056
Brown JM, Campbell EA (1990) Sources of occupational stress in the police. Work Stress 4:305–318. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678379008256993
Brunetto Y, Teo STT, Shacklock K, Farr-Wharton R (2012) Emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, well-being and engagement: explaining organisational commitment and turnover intentions in policing. Hum Resour Manag J 22:428–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2012.00198.x
Chirico F (2016) Job stress models for predicting burnout syndrome: a review. Ann Ist Super Sanita 52:443–456. https://doi.org/10.4415/ANN_16_03_17
Christian MS, Garza AS, Slaughter JE (2011) Work engagement: a quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance. Pers Psychol 64:89–136
Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edn. Erlbaum, Hillsdale
Collins PA, Gibbs AC (2003) Stress in police officers: a study of the origins, prevalence and severity of stress-related symptoms within a county police force. Occup Med 53:256–264. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqg061
Demerouti E, Bakker AB, Nachreiner F, Schaufeli WB (2001) The job demands-resources model of burnout. J Appl Psychol 86:499–512
Eddy P, Heckenberg R, Wertheim EH, Kent S, Wright BJ (2016) A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effort-reward imbalance model of workplace stress with indicators of immune function. J Psychosom Res 91:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2016.10.003
Eddy P, Wertheim EH, Kingsley M, Wright BJ (2017) Associations between the effort-reward imbalance model of workplace stress and indices of cardiovascular health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 83:252–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.10.025
Engel S, Wörfel F, Maria AS, Wolter C, Kleiber D, Renneberg B (2018) Leadership climate prevents emotional exhaustion in German police officers. Int J Police Sci Manag 20:217–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355718786295
Feldt T, Huhtala M, Kinnunen U, Hyvönen K, Mäkikangas A, Sonnentag S (2013) Long-term patterns of effort-reward imbalance and over-commitment: investigating occupational well-being and recovery experiences as outcomes. Work Stress 27:64–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2013.765670
Garbarino S, Magnavita N, Elovainio M, Heponiemi T, Ciprani F, Cuomo G, Bergamaschi A (2011) Police job strain during routine activities and a major event. Occup Med 61:395–399. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqr058
Garbarino S, Magnavita N, Chiorri C, Brisinda D, Cuomo G, Venuti A, Fenici R (2012) Evaluation of operational stress in riot and crowd control police units: a global challenge for prevention and management of police task-related stress. J Police Crim Psychol 27:111–122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-012-9104-8
Garbarino S, Cuomo G, Chiorri C, Magnavita N (2013) Association of work-related stress with mental health problems in a special police force unit. BMJ Open 3. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002791
Gilbert-Ouimet M, Trudel X, Brisson C, Milot A, Vézina M (2014) Adverse effects of psychosocial work factors on blood pressure: systematic review of studies on demand-control-support and effort-reward imbalance models. Scand J Work Environ Health 40:109–132. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3390
Goetz D, Reinhardt E (2016) Führung: Feedback auf Augenhöhe: Wie Sie Ihre Mitarbeiter erreichen und klare Ansagen mit Wertschätzung verbinden. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden
Hu S, Wang J-N, Liu L, Wu H, Yang X (2015) The association between work-related characteristic and job burnout among Chinese correctional officers: a cross-sectional survey. Public Health 129:1172–1178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2015.05.006
Kelloway EK, Barling J (2010) Leadership development as an intervention in occupational health psychology. Work Stress 24:260–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678373.2010.518441
Kinnunen U, Feldt T, Mäkikangas A (2008) Testing the effort-reward imbalance model among Finnish managers: the role of perceived organizational support. J Occup Health Psychol 13:114–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.13.2.114
Koch P, Schablon A, Latza U, Nienhaus A (2014) Musculoskeletal pain and effort-reward imbalance—a systematic review. BMC Public Health 14:37. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-37
Lenhard W, Lenhard A (2016) Calculation of effect sizes. Retrieved from https://www.psychometrica.de/effect_size.html. Psychometrica, Dettelbach (Germany). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3478.4245
Liberman AM, Best SR, Metzler TJ, Fagan JA, Weiss DS, Marmar CR (2002) Routine occupational stress and psychological distress in police. Policing 25:421–441. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639510210429446
Nakata A (2012) Psychosocial job stress and immunity: a systematic review. Methods Mol Biol 934:39–75. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-071-7_3
Niedhammer I, Tek M-L, Starke D, Siegrist J (2004) Effort–reward imbalance model and self-reported health: cross-sectional and prospective findings from the GAZEL cohort. Soc Sci Med 58:1531–1541. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00346-0
Niedhammer I, Chastang J-F, David S, Barouhiel L, Barrandon G (2006) Psychosocial work environment and mental health: job-strain and effort-reward imbalance models in a context of major organizational changes. Int J Occup Environ Health 12:111–119. https://doi.org/10.1179/oeh.2006.12.2.111
Nieuwenhuijsen K, Bruinvels D, Frings-Dresen M (2010) Psychosocial work environment and stress-related disorders, a systematic review. Occup Med 60:277–286. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqq081
Pavel C, Dilla B (2019) Exploratory study of how to improve efficiency despite staff shortages and budgetary constraints: a mixed-methods approach in a law enforcement setting. SAGE Research Methods Cases. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526489258
Pikhart H (2001) Psychosocial work characteristics and self rated health in four post-communist countries. J Epidemiol Community Health 55:624–630. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.55.9.624
Richardsen AM, Burke RJ, Martinussen M (2006) Work and health outcomes among police officers: the mediating role of police cynicism and engagement. Int J Stress Manag 13:555–574. https://doi.org/10.1037/1072-5245.13.4.555
Rugulies R, Aust B, Madsen IEH (2017) Effort–reward imbalance at work and risk of depressive disorders. A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Scand J Work Environ Health 43:294–306. https://doi.org/10.5271/sjweh.3632
Santa Maria A, Wolter C, Gusy B, Kleiber D, Renneberg B (2018a) The impact of health-oriented leadership on police officers’ physical health, burnout, depression and well-being. Policing: a Journal of Policy and Practice 13:186–200. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/pay067
Santa Maria A, Wörfel F, Wolter C, Gusy B, Rotter M, Stark S, Kleiber D, Renneberg B (2018b) The role of job demands and job resources in the development of emotional exhaustion, depression, and anxiety among police officers. Police Q 21:109–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098611117743957
Schaufeli WB, Bakker AB (2003) Utrecht work engagement scale: preliminary manual. Utrecht University, Utrecht
Schaufeli WB, Salanova M, González-Romá V, Bakker AB (2002) The measurement of engagement and burnout: a two sample confirmatory factoranalytic approach. J Happiness Stud 3:71–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
Schaufeli WB, Bakker AB, Salanova M (2006) The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: a cross-national study. Educ Psychol Meas 66:701–716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471
Shane JM (2010) Organizational stressors and police performance. J Crime Justice 38:807–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.05.008
Siegrist J (1996) Adverse health effects of high-effort/low-reward conditions. J Occup Health Psychol 1:27–42
Siegrist J (2010) Effort-reward imbalance at work and cardiovascular diseases. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 23:279–285
Siegrist J (2013) Berufliche Gratifikationskrisen und depressive Störungen. Nervenarzt 84:33–37
Siegrist J, Starke D, Chandola T, Godin I, Marmot M, Niedhammer I, Peter R (2004) The measurement of effort–reward imbalance at work: European comparisons. Soc Sci Med 58:1483–1499. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00351-4
Siegrist J, Wege N, Pühlhofer F, Wahrendorf M (2009) A short generic measure of work stress in the era of globalization: effort–reward imbalance. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 82:1005–1013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-008-0384-3
Søgaard AJ, Selmer R, Bjertness E, Thelle D (2004) The Oslo health study: the impact of self-selection in a large, population-based survey. Int J Equity Health 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-3-3
Stierle J, Lakner S (2017) Employer Branding – Arbeitgebermarke Polizei. In: Stierle J, Wehe D, Siller H (eds) Handbuch Polizeimanagement: Polizeipolitik – Polizeiwissenschaft - Polizeipraxis. Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, Wiesbaden, pp 993–1017
Tsutsumi A, Kawakami N (2004) A review of empirical studies on the model of effort–reward imbalance at work: reducing occupational stress by implementing a new theory. Soc Sci Med 59:2335–2359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.03.030
van Vegchel N, de Jonge J, Bakker A, Schaufeli W (2002) Testing global and specific indicators of rewards in the effort-reward imbalance model: does it make any difference? Eur J Work Organ Psy 11:403–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320244000265
van Vegchel N, de Jonge J, Bosma H, Schaufeli WB (2005) Reviewing the effort–reward imbalance model: drawing up the balance of 45 empirical studies. Soc Sci Med 60:1117–1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.043
Vink JM, Willemsen G, Stubbe JH, Middeldorp CM, Liqthart RS, Baas KD, Dirkzwager HJ, de Geus EJ, Boomsma DI (2004) Estimating non-response bias in family studies: application to mental health and lifestyle. Eur J Epidemiol 19:623–630
von dem Knesebeck O, David K, Siegrist J (2005) Psychosoziale Arbeitsbelastungen und muskulo-skeletale Beschwerden bei Spezialeinheiten der Polizei (psychosocial stress at work and musculoskeletal pain among police officers in special forces). Gesundheitswesen 67:674–679. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-858607
Wang X, Liu L, Zou F, Hao J, Wu H (2017) Associations of occupational stressors, perceived organizational support, and psychological capital with work engagement among Chinese female nurses. Biomed Res Int 2017:5284628. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5284628
Webster JH (2013) Police officer perceptions of occupational stress: the state of the art. Policing 36:636–652. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-03-2013-0021
Wege N, Li J, Siegrist J (2018) Are there gender differences in associations of effort–reward imbalance at work with self-reported doctor-diagnosed depression? Prospective evidence from the German socio-economic panel. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 91:435–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-018-1293-8
Willis TA, O’Connor DB, Smith L (2008) Investigating effort-reward imbalance and work-family conflict in relation to morningness-eveningness and shift work. Work Stress 22:125–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802180558
Wolter C, Santa Maria A, Wörfel F, Gusy B, Lesener T, Kleiber D, Renneberg B (2018) Job demands, job resources, and well-being in police officers—a resource-oriented approach. J Police Crim Psychol 14:491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9265-1
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Berlin Police, Germany. The funding source supported the collection of the data by addressing potential participants. The Berlin Police had no further involvement with regard to study design, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing process or submission of the article.
Funding
This study was funded by the Berlin Police, Germany. The funding source supported the collection of the data by addressing potential participants. The Berlin Police had no further involvement with regard to study design, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing process or submission of the article.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no financial or non-financial conflict of interest. All authors approved the manuscript and this submission. The manuscript describes original work and is not under consideration by any other journal
Ethical approval
The research project was approved by the local ethics committee of the research institution as well as relevant committees of the Berlin Police (staff council, gender equality officer, severely handicapped employee representative) and is in accordance with APA ethical standards. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. All participants were informed that participation in the health monitoring survey was voluntary and anonymous, that all data were kept externally at the research institution and that all data were edited, analyzed and anonymized and thus no inferences about single participants could be drawn from the data. Participants could discontinue the questionnaire before completion at any point of time.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wolter, C., Santa Maria, A., Georg, S. et al. Relationships between effort-reward imbalance and work engagement in police officers: taking a salutogenic perspective. J Public Health (Berl.) 29, 177–186 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-019-01112-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-019-01112-1