Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Migration and schizophrenia: meta-analysis and explanatory framework

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience Aims and scope Submit manuscript

A Correction to this article was published on 12 May 2020

This article has been updated

Abstract

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses suggest that there are increased rates of schizophrenia and related psychoses in first- and second-generation migrants and refugees. Here, we present a meta-analysis on the incidence of non-affective psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation migrants. We found substantial evidence for an increased relative risk of incidence among first- and second-generation migrants compared to the native population. As heterogeneity of included studies was high, effect estimates should be interpreted with caution and as guiding values rather than exact risk estimates. We interpret our findings in the context of social exclusion and isolation stress, and provide an explanatory framework that links cultural differences in verbal communication and experienced discrimination with the emergence of psychotic experiences and their neurobiological correlates. In this context, we discuss studies observing stress-dependent alterations of dopamine neurotransmission in studies among migrants versus non-migrants as well as in subjects with psychotic disorders. We suggest that social stress effects can impair contextualization of the meaning of verbal messages, which can be accounted for in Bayesian terms by a reduced precision of prior beliefs relative to sensory data, causing increased prediction errors and resulting in a shift towards the literal or “concrete” meaning of words. Compensatory alterations in higher-level beliefs, e.g., in the form of generalized interpretations of ambiguous interactions as hostile behavior, may contribute to psychotic experiences in migrants. We thus suggest that experienced discrimination and social exclusion is at the core of increased rates of psychotic experiences in subjects with a migration background.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Change history

  • 12 May 2020

    In the original article, the reference number #36 is listed with the wrong list of authors. The first author was unfortunately omitted. The correct reference #36 should read: Lasalvia A, Bonetto C, Tosato S, Cristofalo D, Salazzari D et al (2014) First-contact incidence of psychosis in north-eastern Italy: influence of age, gender, immigration and socioeconomic deprivation. Br J Psychiatry 205:127���134. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.134445.

    Additionally, this reference is cited in Table 1 and Fig. 2 as ���Bonetto (2015)��� and the correct citation is ���Lasalvia (2014)���.

References

  1. Cantor-Graae E, Selten JP (2005) Schizophrenia and migration: a meta-analysis and review. Am J Psychiatry 162:12–24

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Bourque F, van der Ven E, Malla A (2011) A meta-analysis of the risk for psychotic disorders among first- and second-generation immigrants. Psychol Med 41:897–910

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Hollander AC, Dal H, Lewis G, Magnusson C, Kirkbride JB, Dalman C (2016) Refugee migration and risk of schizophrenia and other non-affective psychoses: cohort study of 1.3 million people in Sweden. Br Med J 352:i1030

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Anderson KK, Cheng J, Susser E, McKenzie KJ, Kurdyak P (2015) Incidence of psychotic disorders among first-generation immigrants and refugees in Ontario. Can Med Assoc J 187:E279–E286

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Tortelli A, Morgan C, Szoke A, Nascimento A, Skurnik N, de Caussade EM, Fain-Donabedian E, Fridja F, Henry M, Ezembe F, Murray RM (2014) Different rates of first admissions for psychosis in migrant groups in Paris. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49:1103–1109

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Cantor-Graae E, Pedersen CB (2013) Full spectrum of psychiatric disorders related to foreign migration: a danish population-based cohort study. JAMA Psychiatry 70:427–435

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Heinz A, Deserno L, Reininghaus U (2013) Urbanicity, social adversity and psychosis. World Psychiatry 12:187–197

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Janssen I, Hanssen M, Bak M, Bijl RV, de Graaf R, Vollebergh W, McKenzie K, van Os J (2003) Discrimination and delusional ideation. Br J Psychiatry 182:71–76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Selten JP, Cantor-Graae E (2005) Social defeat: risk factor for schizophrenia? Br J Psychiatry 187:101–102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Becares L, Dewey ME, Das-Munshi J (2018) Ethnic density effects for adult mental health: systematic review and meta-analysis of international studies. Psychol Med 48:2054–2072

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Faris RELDH (1939) Mental disorders in urban areas: an ecological study of Schizophrenia and other psychoses. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  12. Termorshuizen F, Smeets HM, Braam AW, Veling W (2014) Neighborhood ethnic density and psychotic disorders among ethnic minority groups in Utrecht City. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49:1093–1102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Halpern D, Nazroo J (2000) The ethnic density effect: results from a national community survey of England and Wales. Int J Soc Psychiatry 46:34–46

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Veling W, Susser E, van Os J, Mackenbach JP, Selten JP, Hoek HW (2008) Ethnic density of neighborhoods and incidence of psychotic disorders among immigrants. Am J Psychiatry 165:66–73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Boydell J, van Os J, McKenzie K, Allardyce J, Goel R, McCreadie RG, Murray RM (2001) Incidence of schizophrenia in ethnic minorities in London: ecological study into interactions with environment. BMJ 323:1336–1338

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Schofield P, Thygesen M, Das-Munshi J, Becares L, Cantor-Graae E, Agerbo E, Pedersen C (2017) Neighbourhood ethnic density and psychosis—is there a difference according to generation? Schizophr Res 195:501–505

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Schofield P, Ashworth M, Jones R (2011) Ethnic isolation and psychosis: re-examining the ethnic density effect. Psychol Med 41:1263–1269

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Rapp MA, Kluge U, Penka S, Vardar A, Aichberger MC, Mundt AP, Schouler-Ocak M, Mosko M, Butler J, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Heinz A (2015) When local poverty is more important than your income: mental health in minorities in inner cities. World Psychiatry 14:249–250

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Gruebner O, Rapp MA, Adli M, Kluge U, Galea S, Heinz A (2017) Cities and mental health. Deutsch Arztebl Int 114:121–127

    Google Scholar 

  20. Heinz A, Kluge U, Rapp MA (2016) Heritability of living in deprived neighbourhoods. Transl Psychiatry 6:e941

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Lieberman JA, Sheitman BB, Kinon BJ (1997) Neurochemical sensitization in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: deficits and dysfunction in neuronal regulation and plasticity. Neuropsychopharmacology 17:205–229

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Mizrahi R, Addington J, Rusjan PM, Suridjan I, Ng A, Boileau I, Pruessner JC, Remington G, Houle S, Wilson AA (2012) Increased stress-induced dopamine release in psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 71:561–567

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Soliman A, O’Driscoll GA, Pruessner J, Holahan AL, Boileau I, Gagnon D, Dagher A (2008) Stress-induced dopamine release in humans at risk of psychosis: a [11C]raclopride PET study. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:2033–2041

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Heinz A (2002) Dopaminergic dysfunction in alcoholism and schizophrenia—psychopathological and behavioral correlates. Eur Psychiatry 17:9–16

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Kapur S (2003) Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: a framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 160:13–23

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Bleuler E (1911) Dementia Praecox oder Gruppe der Schizophrenien. Deuticke, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  27. Cameron N (1939) Deterioration and regression in schizophrenic thinking. J Abnormal Soc Psychol 34:265–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Goldstein K (1944) Methological approach to the study of the schizophrenic thought discorder. In: Kasanin JS (ed) Language and thought in schizophrenia. W. W. Norton & Company, New York, pp 17–39

    Google Scholar 

  29. Kretschmer E (1939) Medizinische Psychologie, 9th edn. Thieme, Leipzig

    Google Scholar 

  30. Adams RA, Stephan KE, Brown HR, Frith CD, Friston KJ (2013) The computational anatomy of psychosis. Front Psychiatry 4:47

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Corlett PR, Frith CD, Fletcher PC (2009) From drugs to deprivation: a Bayesian framework for understanding models of psychosis. Psychopharmacology 206:515–530

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Fletcher PC, Frith CD (2009) Perceiving is believing: a Bayesian approach to explaining the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Nat Rev Neurosci 10:48–58

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Sterzer P, Adams RA, Fletcher P, Frith C, Lawrie SM, Muckli L, Petrovic P, Uhlhaas P, Voss M, Corlett PR (2018) The predictive coding account of psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 84(9):634–643

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Higgins JPT, Green S (2011) Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. Cochrane Collab. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org. Accessed 7 Jan 2019

  35. Barghadouch A, Carlsson J, Norredam M (2018) Psychiatric disorders and predictors hereof among refugee children in early adulthood: a register-based cohort study. J Nervous Mental Dis 206:3–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Bonetto C, Tosato S, Cristofalo D, Salazzari D et al (2014) First-contact incidence of psychosis in north-eastern Italy: influence of age, gender, immigration and socioeconomic deprivation. Br J Psychiatry 205:127–134

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Cantor-Graae E, Pedersen CB, McNeil TF, Mortensen PB (2003) Migration as a risk factor for schizophrenia: a Danish population-based cohort study. Br J Psychiatry 182:117–122

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Cantor-Graae E, Zolkowska K, McNeil TF (2005) Increased risk of psychotic disorder among immigrants in Malmo: a 3-year first-contact study. Psychol Med 35:1155–1163

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Coid JW, Kirkbride JB, Barker D, Cowden F, Stamps R, Yang M, Jones PB (2008) Raised incidence rates of all psychoses among migrant groups: findings from the east london first episode psychosis study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 65:1250–1258

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Corcoran C, Perrin M, Harlap S, Deutsch L, Fennig S, Manor O, Nahon D, Kimhy D, Malaspina D, Susser E (2009) Incidence of Schizophrenia among second-generation immigrants in the Jerusalem perinatal cohort. Schizophr Bull 35:596–602

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Dykxhoorn J, Hollander A-C, Lewis G, Magnusson C, Dalman C, Kirkbride J (2018) Risk of schizophrenia, schizoaffective, and bipolar disorders by migrant status, region of origin, and age-at-migration: a national cohort study of 1.8 million people. Psychol Med 5:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  42. Hjern A, Wicks S, Dalman C (2004) Social adversity contributes to high morbidity in psychoses in immigrants—a national cohort study in two generations of Swedish residents. Psychol Med 34:1025–1033

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Hogerzeil SJ, van Hemert AM, Veling W, Hoek HW (2017) Incidence of schizophrenia among migrants in the Netherlands: a direct comparison of first contact longitudinal register approaches. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 52:147–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Leao TS, Sundquist J, Johansson LM, Johansson SE, Sundquist K (2005) Incidence of mental disorders in second-generation immigrants in Sweden: a four-year cohort study. Ethnicity Health 10:243–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Leao TS, Sundquist J, Frank G, Johansson LM, Johansson SE, Sundquist K (2006) Incidence of schizophrenia or other psychoses in first- and second-generation immigrants: a national cohort study. J Nervous Mental Dis 194:27–33

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Markkula N, Lehti V, Gissler M, Suvisaari J (2017) Incidence and prevalence of mental disorders among immigrants and native Finns: a register-based study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 52:1523–1540

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Mortensen PB, Cantor-Graae E, McNeil TF (1997) Increased rates of schizophrenia among immigrants: some methodological concerns raised by Danish findings. Psychol Med 27:813–820

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Pedersen CB, Demontis D, Pedersen MS, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB, Borglum AD, Hougaard DM, Hollegaard MV, Mors O, Cantor-Graae E (2012) Risk of schizophrenia in relation to parental origin and genome-wide divergence. Psychol Med 42:1515–1521

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Schofield P, Thygesen M, Das-Munshi J, Becares L, Cantor-Graae E, Agerbo E, Pedersen C (2018) Neighbourhood ethnic density and psychosis—is there a difference according to generation? Schizophr Res 195:501–505

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Schofield P, Thygesen M, Das-Munshi J, Becares L, Cantor-Graae E, Pedersen C, Agerbo E (2017) Ethnic density, urbanicity and psychosis risk for migrant groups—a population cohort study. Schizophr Res 190:82–87

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Selten JP, Slaets JPJ, Kahn RS (1997) Schizophrenia in Surinamese and Dutch Antillean immigrants to the Netherlands: evidence of an increased incidence. Psychol Med 27:807–811

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Selten JP, Veen N, Feller W, Blom JD, Schols D, Camoenie W, Oolders J, Van der Velden M, Hoek HW, Vladar Rivero VM, Van der Graaf Y, Kahn R (2001) Incidence of psychotic disorders in immigrant groups to the Netherlands. Br J Psychiatry 178:367–372

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Smith GN, Boydell J, Murray RM, Flynn S, McKay K, Sherwood M, Honer WG (2006) The incidence of schizophrenia in European immigrants to Canada. Schizophr Res 87:205–211

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Sorensen HJ, Nielsen PR, Pedersen CB, Benros ME, Nordentoft M, Mortensen PB (2014) Population impact of familial and environmental risk factors for schizophrenia: a nationwide study. Schizophr Res 153:214–219

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Veling W, Selten JP, Veen N, Laan W, Blom JD, Hoek HW (2006) Incidence of schizophrenia among ethnic minorities in the Netherlands: a four-year first-contact study. Schizophr Res 86:189–193

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Werbeloff N, Levine SZ, Rabinowitz J (2012) Elaboration on the association between immigration and schizophrenia: a population-based national study disaggregating annual trends, country of origin and sex over 15 years. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 47:303–311

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Westman J, Johansson LM, Sundquist K (2006) Country of birth and hospital admission rates for mental disorders: a cohort study of 4.5 million men and women in Sweden. Eur Psychiatry 21:307–314

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Zolkowska K, Cantor-Graae E, McNeil TF (2001) Increased rates of psychosis among immigrants to Sweden: is migration a risk factor for psychosis? Psychol Med 31:669–678

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Perälä J, Suvisaari J, Saarni SI et al (2007) Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:19–28

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Heinz A, Voss M, Lawrie SM, Mishara A, Bauer M, Gallinat J, Juckel G, Lang U, Rapp M, Falkai P, Strik W, Krystal J, Abi-Dargham A, Galderisi S (2016) Shall we really say goodbye to first rank symptoms? Eur Psychiatry 37:8–13

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Freud S (1915) Das Unbewußte. Gesammelte Werke, Bd. X.: 263–303

  62. Lévi-Strauss C (1973) Das wilde Denken. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt am Main

    Google Scholar 

  63. Heinz A (1998) Colonial perspectives in the construction of the schizophrenic patient as primitive man. Critiq Anthropol 18:421–444

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Lewis-Williams D, Dowson T (1989) Images of power: understanding Bushman rock art. Southern Book Publishers, Johannesburg

    Google Scholar 

  65. Goldstein K (1944) Methological approach to the study of schizophrenic thought disorder. In: Kasanin JS (ed) Language and thought in schizophrenia. W. W. Norton & Company, New York pp 17–40

    Google Scholar 

  66. Goldstein K (1959) Concerning the concreteness in schizophrenia. J Abnorm Psychol 59:146–148

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Holm- HR (1988) Über den strukturellen Zusammenhang schizophrener Denk- und Sprachstörungen- mit wahnhaftem Erleben und Abwandlungen der Intentionalität. Fortschritte der Neurologie Psychiatrie 56:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Gorham DR (1956) Use of the proverbs test for differentiating schizophrenia from normals. J Consult Clin Psychol 20:435–440

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Blaufarb H (1962) A demonstration of verbal abstracting ability in chronic schizophrenics under enriched stimulus and instructional conditions. J Consult Psychol 26:471–475

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Lacan J (1997) Die Psychosen. Das Seminar Buch III (1955–1956). Quadriga, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  71. Gallagher S, Varga S (2014) Social constraints on the direct perception of emotions and intentions. Topoi 33:185–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Selten JP, Termorshuizen F (2017) “Ethnic density of neighbourhood at age 15 modifies the risk for psychosis”. So what? Schizophr Res 190:88–89

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Halpern D (1993) Minorities and mental health. Soc Sci Med 36:597–607

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Chakraborty AT, McKenzie KJ, Hajat S, Stansfeld SA (2010) Racism, mental illness and social support in the UK. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 45:1115–1124

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Karlsen S, Nazroo JY, McKenzie K, Bhui K, Weich S (2005) Racism, psychosis and common mental disorder among ethnic minority groups in England. Psychol Med 35:1795–1803

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Sinclair D, Purves-Tyson TD, Allen KM, Weickert CS (2014) Impacts of stress and sex hormones on dopamine neurotransmission in the adolescent brain. Psychopharmacology 231:1581–1599

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Heinz A, Schlagenhauf F (2010) Dopaminergic dysfunction in schizophrenia: salience attribution revisited. Schizophr Bull 36:472–485

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Pani L, Porcella A, Gessa GL (2000) The role of stress in the pathophysiology of the dopaminergic system. Molecular Psychiatry 5:14–21

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Mizrahi R, Kenk M, Suridjan I, Boileau I, George TP, McKenzie K, Wilson AA, Houle S, Rusjan P (2014) Stress-induced dopamine response in subjects at clinical high risk for schizophrenia with and without concurrent cannabis use. Neuropsychopharmacology 39:1479–1489

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Brunelin J, d’Amato T, Van Os J, Costes N, Suaud Chagny MF, Saoud M (2010) Increased left striatal dopamine transmission in unaffected siblings of schizophrenia patients in response to acute metabolic stress. Psychiatry Res 181:130–135

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Howes OD, Kapur S (2009) The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: version III—the final common pathway. Schizophr Bull 35:549–562

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Kumakura Y, Cumming P, Vernaleken I, Buchholz HG, Siessmeier T, Heinz A, Kienast T, Bartenstein P, Grunder G (2007) Elevated [18F]fluorodopamine turnover in brain of patients with schizophrenia: an [18F]fluorodopa/positron emission tomography study. J Neurosci 27:8080–8087

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Kienast T, Hariri AR, Schlagenhauf F, Wrase J, Sterzer P, Buchholz HG, Smolka MN, Grunder G, Cumming P, Kumakura Y, Bartenstein P, Dolan RJ, Heinz A (2008) Dopamine in amygdala gates limbic processing of aversive stimuli in humans. Nat Neurosci 11:1381–1382

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Pankow A, Friedel E, Sterzer P, Seiferth N, Walter H, Heinz A, Schlagenhauf F (2013) Altered amygdala activation in schizophrenia patients during emotion processing. Schizophr Res 150:101–106

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Weinberger DR (1987) Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:660–669

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Egerton A, Howes OD, Houle S, McKenzie K, Valmaggia LR, Bagby MR, Tseng HH, Bloomfield MA, Kenk M, Bhattacharyya S, Suridjan I, Chaddock CA, Winton-Brown TT, Allen P, Rusjan P, Remington G, Meyer-Lindenberg A, McGuire PK, Mizrahi R (2017) Elevated striatal dopamine function in immigrants and their children: a risk mechanism for psychosis. Schizophr Bull 43:293–301

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  87. Kasanova Z, Hernaus D, Vaessen T, van Amelsvoort T, Winz O, Heinzel A, Pruessner J, Mottaghy FM, Collip D, Myin-Germeys I (2016) Early-life stress affects stress-related prefrontal dopamine activity in healthy adults, but not in individuals with psychotic disorder. PLoS One 11:e0150746

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Lataster J, Collip D, Ceccarini J, Hernaus D, Haas D, Booij L, van Os J, Pruessner J, Van Laere K, Myin-Germeys I (2014) Familial liability to psychosis is associated with attenuated dopamine stress signaling in ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Schizophr Bull 40:66–77

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Durstewitz DSJ (2002) The computational role of dopamine D1 receptors in working memory. Neural Netw 15:561–572

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Powers AR, Mathys C, Corlett PR (2017) Pavlovian conditioning-induced hallucinations result from overweighting of perceptual priors. Science 357:596–600

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. Mathys CD, Lomakina EI, Daunizeau J, Iglesias S, Brodersen KH, Friston KJ, Stephan KE (2014) Uncertainty in perception and the Hierarchical Gaussian Filter. Front Hum Neurosci 8:825

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Saxe R, Houlihan SD (2017) Formalizing emotion concepts within a Bayesian model of theory of mind. Curr Opin Psychol 17:15–21

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Pfuhl G (2017) A Bayesian perspective on delusions: suggestions for modifying two reasoning tasks. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 56:4–11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Luyten P, Fonagy P (2015) The neurobiology of mentalizing. Personal Disord 6:366–379

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Smeets T, Dziobek I, Wolf OT (2009) Social cognition under stress: differential effects of stress-induced cortisol elevations in healthy young men and women. Horm Behav 55:507–513

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Debbane M, Salaminios G, Luyten P, Badoud D, Armando M, Solida Tozzi A, Fonagy P, Brent BK (2016) Attachment, neurobiology, and mentalizing along the psychosis continuum. Front Hum Neurosci 10:406

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Frith CD (2004) Schizophrenia and theory of mind. Psychol Med 34:385–389

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. Jonathan Henssler and Lasse Brandt contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Campus Charité Mitte, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117, Berlin, Germany

    Jonathan Henssler, Lasse Brandt, Shuyan Liu, Christiane Montag, Philipp Sterzer & Andreas Heinz

  2. Department of Emergency Medicine, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

    Martin Müller

  3. Institute of Health Economics and Clinical Epidemiology, University Hospital of Cologne, Cologne, Germany

    Martin Müller

  4. Berlin School of Mind and Brain, Berlin, Germany

    Philipp Sterzer & Andreas Heinz

  5. Bernstein Center of Computational Neuroscience Berlin, Berlin, Germany

    Philipp Sterzer & Andreas Heinz

Authors
  1. Jonathan Henssler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lasse Brandt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Martin Müller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shuyan Liu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Christiane Montag
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Philipp Sterzer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Andreas Heinz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andreas Heinz.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest regarding the contents of this article. We gratefully thank Stephanie Wall and David Gabel for their help in conducting the literature search and screening.

Electronic supplementary material

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Henssler, J., Brandt, L., Müller, M. et al. Migration and schizophrenia: meta-analysis and explanatory framework. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 270, 325–335 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-019-01028-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-019-01028-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation