Abstract
The clinical syndrome referred to as viral hemorrhagic fever (VHF) can be caused by several different families of RNA viruses, including select members of the arenaviruses, bunyaviruses, filoviruses, and flaviviruses. VHF is characterized by malaise, fever, vascular permeability, decreased plasma volume, coagulation abnormalities, and varying degrees of hemorrhage. Study of the filovirus Ebola virus has demonstrated a critical role for suppression of innate antiviral defenses in viral pathogenesis. Additionally, antigen-presenting cells are targets of productive infection and immune dysregulation. Among these cell populations, monocytes and macrophages are proposed to produce damaging inflammatory cytokines, while infected dendritic cells fail to undergo proper maturation, potentially impairing adaptive immunity. Uncontrolled virus replication and accompanying inflammatory responses are thought to promote vascular leakage and coagulopathy. However, the specific molecular pathways that underlie these features of VHF remain poorly understood. The arenavirus Lassa virus and the flavivirus yellow fever virus exhibit similar molecular pathogenesis suggesting common underlying mechanisms. Because non-human primate models that closely mimic VHF are available for Ebola, Lassa, and yellow fever viruses, we propose that comparative molecular studies using these models will yield new insights into the molecular underpinnings of VHF and suggest new therapeutic approaches.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Fenton MB, Davison M, Kunz TH, McCracken GF, Racey PA, Tuttle MD (2006) Linking bats to emerging diseases. Science 311(5764):1098–1099; author reply 1098-1099. doi:10.1126/science.311.5764.1098c
Paessler S, Walker DH (2013) Pathogenesis of the viral hemorrhagic fevers. Annu Rev Pathol 8:411–440. doi:10.1146/annurev-pathol-020712-164041
Schnittler HJ, Feldmann H (2003) Viral hemorrhagic fever—a vascular disease? Thromb Haemost 89(6):967–972. doi:10.1267/THRO03060967
Channabasappa N, Johnson-Welch S, Mittal N De novo cholangiocarcinoma after liver transplantation in a pediatric patient. Pediatr Transplant 14(8):E110–E114. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3046.2009.01220.x
Birmingham K, Kenyon G (2001) Nat Med 7(8):878–878. doi:10.1038/90892
McCormick JB, Webb PA, Krebs JW, Johnson KM, Smith ES (1987) A prospective study of the epidemiology and ecology of Lassa fever. J Infect Dis 155(3):437–444
Vasconcelos PF, Monath TP (2016) Yellow fever remains a potential threat to public health. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 16(8):566–567. doi:10.1089/vbz.2016.2031
Organization WH (2016) Situation report—Ebola virus disease 10 June 2016.
Kuhn JH, Bao Y, Bavari S, Becker S, Bradfute S, Brauburger K, Rodney Brister J, Bukreyev AA, Cai Y, Chandran K, Davey RA, Dolnik O, Dye JM, Enterlein S, Gonzalez JP, Formenty P, Freiberg AN, Hensley LE, Hoenen T, Honko AN, Ignatyev GM, Jahrling PB, Johnson KM, Klenk HD, Kobinger G, Lackemeyer MG, Leroy EM, Lever MS, Muhlberger E, Netesov SV, Olinger GG, Palacios G, Patterson JL, Paweska JT, Pitt L, Radoshitzky SR, Ryabchikova EI, Saphire EO, Shestopalov AM, Smither SJ, Sullivan NJ, Swanepoel R, Takada A, Towner JS, van der Groen G, Volchkov VE, Volchkova VA, Wahl-Jensen V, Warren TK, Warfield KL, Weidmann M, Nichol ST (2013) Virus nomenclature below the species level: a standardized nomenclature for filovirus strains and variants rescued from cDNA. Arch Virol 159(5):1229–1237. doi:10.1007/s00705-013-1877-2
Feldmann H, Sanchez A, Geisbert TW (2013) Filoviridae: Marburg and Ebola viruses. Fields virology, 6th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Towner JS, Pourrut X, Albarino CG, Nkogue CN, Bird BH, Grard G, Ksiazek TG, Gonzalez JP, Nichol ST, Leroy EM (2007) Marburg virus infection detected in a common African bat. PLoS One 2(8):e764. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000764
Leendertz SA, Gogarten JF, Dux A, Calvignac-Spencer S, Leendertz FH (2015) Assessing the evidence supporting fruit bats as the primary reservoirs for Ebola viruses. EcoHealth 13(1):18–25. doi:10.1007/s10393-015-1053-0
Jones ME, Schuh AJ, Amman BR, Sealy TK, Zaki SR, Nichol ST, Towner JS (2015) Experimental inoculation of Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) with viruses of the Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus genera. Viruses 7(7):3420–3442. doi:10.3390/v7072779
Kortepeter MG, Bausch DG, Bray M (2011) Basic clinical and laboratory features of filoviral hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis 204(Suppl 3):S810–S816. doi:10.1093/infdis/jir299
Zaki SR, Goldsmith CS (1999) Pathologic features of filovirus infections in humans. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 235:97–116
Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Gibb TR, Steele KE, Jaax NK, Jahrling PB (2000) Apoptosis induced in vitro and in vivo during infection by Ebola and Marburg viruses. Lab Investig 80(2):171–186
Martines RB, Ng DL, Greer PW, Rollin PE, Zaki SR (2015) Tissue and cellular tropism, pathology and pathogenesis of Ebola and Marburg viruses. J Pathol 235(2):153–174. doi:10.1002/path.4456
Baize S, Leroy EM, Georges-Courbot MC, Capron M, Lansoud-Soukate J, Debre P, Fisher-Hoch SP, McCormick JB, Georges AJ (1999) Defective humoral responses and extensive intravascular apoptosis are associated with fatal outcome in Ebola virus-infected patients. Nat Med 5(4):423–426
Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Larsen T, Young HA, Reed DS, Geisbert JB, Scott DP, Kagan E, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ (2003) Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques: evidence that dendritic cells are early and sustained targets of infection. Am J Pathol 163(6):2347–2370
Dube D, Schornberg KL, Stantchev TS, Bonaparte MI, Delos SE, Bouton AH, Broder CC, White JM (2008) Cell adhesion promotes Ebola virus envelope glycoprotein-mediated binding and infection. J Virol 82(14):7238–7242. doi:10.1128/JVI.00425-08
Reed DS, Hensley LE, Geisbert JB, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW (2004) Depletion of peripheral blood T lymphocytes and NK cells during the course of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques. Viral Immunol 17(3):390–400
Hensley LE, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Geisbert TW (2002) Proinflammatory response during Ebola virus infection of primate models: possible involvement of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. Immunol Lett 80(3):169–179
Wauquier N, Becquart P, Padilla C, Baize S, Leroy EM (2010) Human fatal zaire ebola virus infection is associated with an aberrant innate immunity and with massive lymphocyte apoptosis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4(10):e837. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000837
Bosio CM, Aman MJ, Grogan C, Hogan R, Ruthel G, Negley D, Mohamadzadeh M, Bavari S, Schmaljohn A (2003) Ebola and Marburg viruses replicate in monocyte-derived dendritic cells without inducing the production of cytokines and full maturation. J Infect Dis 188(11):1630–1638
Mahanty S, Hutchinson K, Agarwal S, McRae M, Rollin PE, Pulendran B (2003) Cutting edge: impairment of dendritic cells and adaptive immunity by Ebola and Lassa viruses. J Immunol 170(6):2797–2801
Sanchez A, Lukwiya M, Bausch D, Mahanty S, Sanchez AJ, Wagoner KD, Rollin PE (2004) Analysis of human peripheral blood samples from fatal and nonfatal cases of Ebola (Sudan) hemorrhagic fever: cellular responses, virus load, and nitric oxide levels. J Virol 78(19):10370–10377
Baize S, Leroy EM, Georges AJ, Georges-Courbot MC, Capron M, Bedjabaga I, Lansoud-Soukate J, Mavoungou E (2002) Inflammatory responses in Ebola virus-infected patients. Clin Exp Immunol 128(1):163–168
Yaddanapudi K, Palacios G, Towner JS, Chen I, Sariol CA, Nichol ST, Lipkin WI (2006) Implication of a retrovirus-like glycoprotein peptide in the immunopathogenesis of Ebola and Marburg viruses. FASEB J 20(14):2519–2530
Ebihara H, Rockx B, Marzi A, Feldmann F, Haddock E, Brining D, LaCasse RA, Gardner D, Feldmann H (2011) Host response dynamics following lethal infection of rhesus macaques with Zaire ebolavirus. J Infect Dis 204(Suppl 3):S991–S999. doi:10.1093/infdis/jir336
Hutchinson KL, Rollin PE (2007) Cytokine and chemokine expression in humans infected with Sudan Ebola virus. J Infect Dis 196(Suppl 2):S357–S363
McElroy AK, Harmon JR, Flietstra TD, Campbell S, Mehta AK, Kraft CS, Lyon MG, Varkey JB, Ribner BS, Kratochvil CJ, Iwen PC, Smith PW, Ahmed R, Nichol ST, Spiropoulou CF (2016) Kinetic analysis of biomarkers in a cohort of US patients with Ebola virus disease. Clin Infect Dis 63(4):460–467. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw334
Villinger F, Rollin PE, Brar SS, Chikkala NF, Winter J, Sundstrom JB, Zaki SR, Swanepoel R, Ansari AA, Peters CJ (1999) Markedly elevated levels of interferon (IFN)-gamma, IFN-alpha, interleukin (IL)-2, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha associated with fatal Ebola virus infection. J Infect Dis 179(Suppl 1):S188–S191
Gupta M, Mahanty S, Ahmed R, Rollin PE (2001) Monocyte-derived human macrophages and peripheral blood mononuclear cells infected with ebola virus secrete MIP-1alpha and TNF-alpha and inhibit poly-IC-induced IFN-alpha in vitro. Virology 284(1):20–25
Stroher U, West E, Bugany H, Klenk HD, Schnittler HJ, Feldmann H (2001) Infection and activation of monocytes by Marburg and Ebola viruses. J Virol 75(22):11025–11033
Rollin PE, Bausch DG, Sanchez A (2007) Blood chemistry measurements and D-dimer levels associated with fatal and nonfatal outcomes in humans infected with Sudan Ebola virus. J Infect Dis 196(Suppl 2):S364–S371. doi:10.1086/520613
Isaacson MSP, Courteille G (1976) Clinical aspects of Ebola virus disease at the Ngaliema hospital, Kinshasa, Zaire, 1976. In: Ebola Virus Haemorrhagic Fever. Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, New York
Organization WH (1978) Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan, 1976. Report of a WHO/International Study Team. Bull World Health Organ 58:247–270
Geisbert TW, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ, Larsen T, Kagan E, Hensley LE (2003) Pathogenesis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in primate models: evidence that hemorrhage is not a direct effect of virus-induced cytolysis of endothelial cells. Am J Pathol 163(6):2371–2382. doi:10.1016/S0002-9440(10)63592-4
Geisbert TW, Hensley LE, Jahrling PB, Larsen T, Geisbert JB, Paragas J, Young HA, Fredeking TM, Rote WE, Vlasuk GP (2003) Treatment of Ebola virus infection with a recombinant inhibitor of factor VIIa/tissue factor: a study in rhesus monkeys. Lancet 362(9400):1953–1958
Gibb TR, Bray M, Geisbert TW, Steele KE, Kell WM, Davis KJ, Jaax NK (2001) Pathogenesis of experimental Ebola Zaire virus infection in BALB/c mice. J Comp Pathol 125(4):233–242
Hensley LE, Alves DA, Geisbert JB, Fritz EA, Reed C, Larsen T, Geisbert TW (2011) Pathogenesis of Marburg hemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques. J Infect Dis 204(Suppl 3):S1021–S1031. doi:10.1093/infdis/jir339
Olejnik J, Forero A, Deflube LR, Hume AJ, Manhart WA, Nishida A, Marzi A, Katze MG, Ebihara H, Rasmussen AL, Muhlberger E (2017) Ebolaviruses associated with differential pathogenicity induce distinct host responses in human macrophages. J Virol. doi:10.1128/JVI.00179-17
Lubaki NM, Ilinykh P, Pietzsch C, Tigabu B, Freiberg AN, Koup RA, Bukreyev A (2013) The lack of maturation of Ebola virus-infected dendritic cells results from the cooperative effect of at least two viral domains. J Virol 87(13):7471–7485. doi:10.1128/JVI.03316-12
Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Williams AJ, Bressler DS, Martin ML, Swanepoel R, Burt FJ, Leman PA, Khan AS, Rowe AK, Mukunu R, Sanchez A, Peters CJ (1999) Clinical virology of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF): virus, virus antigen, and IgG and IgM antibody findings among EHF patients in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis 179(Suppl 1):S177–S187. doi:10.1086/514321
McElroy AK, Akondy RS, Davis CW, Ellebedy AH, Mehta AK, Kraft CS, Lyon GM, Ribner BS, Varkey J, Sidney J, Sette A, Campbell S, Stroher U, Damon I, Nichol ST, Spiropoulou CF, Ahmed R (2015) Human Ebola virus infection results in substantial immune activation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(15):4719–4724. doi:10.1073/pnas.1502619112
Schneider WM, Chevillotte MD, Rice CM (2014) Interferon-stimulated genes: a complex web of host defenses. Annu Rev Immunol 32:513–545. doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120231
Schoggins JW (2014) Interferon-stimulated genes: roles in viral pathogenesis. Curr Opin Virol 6:40–46. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2014.03.006
Cardenas WB, Loo YM, Gale M Jr, Hartman AL, Kimberlin CR, Martinez-Sobrido L, Saphire EO, Basler CF (2006) Ebola virus VP35 protein binds double-stranded RNA and inhibits alpha/beta interferon production induced by RIG-I signaling. J Virol 80(11):5168–5178
Muhlberger E, Lotfering B, Klenk HD, Becker S (1998) Three of the four nucleocapsid proteins of Marburg virus, NP, VP35, and L, are sufficient to mediate replication and transcription of Marburg virus-specific monocistronic minigenomes. J Virol 72(11):8756–8764
Muhlberger E, Weik M, Volchkov VE, Klenk HD, Becker S (1999) Comparison of the transcription and replication strategies of marburg virus and Ebola virus by using artificial replication systems. J Virol 73(3):2333–2342
Basler CF, Wang X, Muhlberger E, Volchkov V, Paragas J, Klenk HD, Garcia-Sastre A, Palese P (2000) The Ebola virus VP35 protein functions as a type I IFN antagonist. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97(22):12289–12294
Prins KC, Delpeut S, Leung DW, Reynard O, Volchkova VA, Reid SP, Ramanan P, Cardenas WB, Amarasinghe GK, Volchkov VE, Basler CF (2010) Mutations abrogating VP35 interaction with double-stranded RNA render Ebola virus avirulent in guinea pigs. J Virol 84(6):3004–3015. doi:10.1128/JVI.02459-09
Hartman AL, Bird BH, Towner JS, Antoniadou ZA, Zaki SR, Nichol ST (2008) Inhibition of IRF-3 activation by VP35 is critical for the high level of virulence of ebola virus. J Virol 82(6):2699–2704
Leung DW, Amarasinghe GK (2012) Structural insights into RNA recognition and activation of RIG-I-like receptors. Curr Opin Struct Biol 22(3):297–303. doi:10.1016/j.sbi.2012.03.011
Prins KC, Cardenas WB, Basler CF (2009) Ebola virus protein VP35 impairs the function of interferon regulatory factor-activating kinases IKKepsilon and TBK-1. J Virol 83(7):3069–3077. doi:10.1128/JVI.01875-08
Chang TH, Kubota T, Matsuoka M, Jones S, Bradfute SB, Bray M, Ozato K (2009) Ebola Zaire virus blocks type I interferon production by exploiting the host SUMO modification machinery. PLoS Pathog 5(6):e1000493. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000493
Leung DW, Prins KC, Borek DM, Farahbakhsh M, Tufariello JM, Ramanan P, Nix JC, Helgeson LA, Otwinowski Z, Honzatko RB, Basler CF, Amarasinghe GK (2010) Structural basis for dsRNA recognition and interferon antagonism by Ebola VP35. Nat Struct Mol Biol 17(2):165–172. doi:10.1038/nsmb.1765
Hartman AL, Ling L, Nichol ST, Hibberd ML (2008) Whole genome expression profiling reveals that inhibition of host innate immune response pathways by Ebola virus can be reversed by a single amino acid change in the VP35 protein. J Virol 82:5348–5358
Luthra P, Ramanan P, Mire CE, Weisend C, Tsuda Y, Yen B, Liu G, Leung DW, Geisbert TW, Ebihara H, Amarasinghe GK, Basler CF (2013) Mutual antagonism between the Ebola virus VP35 protein and the RIG-I activator PACT determines infection outcome. Cell Host Microbe 14(1):74–84. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2013.06.010
Mellman I, Steinman RM (2001) Dendritic cells: specialized and regulated antigen processing machines. Cell 106(3):255–258
Yen B, Mulder LC, Martinez O, Basler CF (2014) Molecular basis for ebolavirus VP35 suppression of human dendritic cell maturation. J Virol 88(21):12500–12510. doi:10.1128/JVI.02163-14
Yen BC, Basler CF (2016) Effects of filovirus interferon antagonists on responses of human monocyte-derived dendritic cells to RNA virus infection. J Virol 90(10):5108–5118. doi:10.1128/JVI.00191-16
Jin H, Yan Z, Prabhakar BS, Feng Z, Ma Y, Verpooten D, Ganesh B, He B (2010) The VP35 protein of Ebola virus impairs dendritic cell maturation induced by virus and lipopolysaccharide. J Gen Virol 91(Pt 2):352–361. doi:10.1099/vir.0.017343-0
Albarino CG, Wiggleton Guerrero L, Spengler JR, Uebelhoer LS, Chakrabarti AK, Nichol ST, Towner JS (2015) Recombinant Marburg viruses containing mutations in the IID region of VP35 prevent inhibition of host immune responses. Virology 476:85–91. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2014.12.002
Edwards MR, Liu G, Mire CE, Sureshchandra S, Luthra P, Yen B, Shabman RS, Leung DW, Messaoudi I, Geisbert TW, Amarasinghe GK, Basler CF (2016) Differential regulation of interferon responses by Ebola and Marburg virus VP35 proteins. Cell Rep 14(7):1632–1640. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2016.01.049
Organization WH (2012) Marburg haemorrhagic fever. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs_marburg/en/
McBride KM, Reich NC (2003) The ins and outs of STAT1 nuclear transport. Sci STKE 2003(195):RE13. doi:10.1126/stke.2003.195.re13
Mateo M, Carbonnelle C, Reynard O, Kolesnikova L, Nemirov K, Page A, Volchkova VA, Volchkov VE (2011) VP24 is a molecular determinant of Ebola virus virulence in guinea pigs. J Infect Dis 204(Suppl 3):S1011–S1020. doi:10.1093/infdis/jir338
Reid SP, Leung LW, Hartman AL, Martinez O, Shaw ML, Carbonnelle C, Volchkov VE, Nichol ST, Basler CF (2006) Ebola virus VP24 binds karyopherin alpha1 and blocks STAT1 nuclear accumulation. J Virol 80(11):5156–5167. doi:10.1128/JVI.02349-05
Reid SP, Valmas C, Martinez O, Sanchez FM, Basler CF (2007) Ebola virus VP24 proteins inhibit the interaction of NPI-1 subfamily karyopherin alpha proteins with activated STAT1. J Virol 81(24):13469–13477
Xu W, Edwards MR, Borek DM, Feagins AR, Mittal A, Alinger JB, Berry KN, Yen B, Hamilton J, Brett TJ, Pappu RV, Leung DW, Basler CF, Amarasinghe GK (2014) Ebola virus VP24 targets a unique NLS binding site on karyopherin alpha 5 to selectively compete with nuclear import of phosphorylated STAT1. Cell Host Microbe 16(2):187–200. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2014.07.008
Valmas C, Grosch MN, Schumann M, Olejnik J, Martinez O, Best SM, Krahling V, Basler CF, Muhlberger E (2010) Marburg virus evades interferon responses by a mechanism distinct from ebola virus. PLoS Pathog 6(1):e1000721. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000721
Valmas C, Basler CF (2011) Marburg virus VP40 antagonizes interferon signaling in a species-specific manner. J Virol 85(9):4309–4317. doi:10.1128/JVI.02575-10
Schumann M, Gantke T, Muhlberger E (2009) Ebola virus VP35 antagonizes PKR activity through its C-terminal interferon inhibitory domain. J Virol 83(17):8993–8997. doi:10.1128/JVI.00523-09
Kaletsky RL, Francica JR, Agrawal-Gamse C, Bates P (2009) Tetherin-mediated restriction of filovirus budding is antagonized by the Ebola glycoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106(8):2886–2891. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811014106
Francica JR, Varela-Rohena A, Medvec A, Plesa G, Riley JL, Bates P (2010) Steric shielding of surface epitopes and impaired immune recognition induced by the ebola virus glycoprotein. PLoS Pathog 6(9):e1001098. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001098
Martinez O, Johnson JC, Honko A, Yen B, Shabman RS, Hensley LE, Olinger GG, Basler CF (2013) Ebola virus exploits a monocyte differentiation program to promote its entry. J Virol. doi:10.1128/JVI.02695-12
Wahl-Jensen V, Kurz SK, Hazelton PR, Schnittler HJ, Stroher U, Burton DR, Feldmann H (2005) Role of Ebola virus secreted glycoproteins and virus-like particles in activation of human macrophages. J Virol 79(4):2413–2419. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.4.2413-2419.2005
Okumura A, Pitha PM, Yoshimura A, Harty RN (2010) Interaction between Ebola virus glycoprotein and host toll-like receptor 4 leads to induction of proinflammatory cytokines and SOCS1. J Virol 84(1):27–33. doi:10.1128/JVI.01462-09
Buchmeier MJ, de la Torre JC, Peters CJ (2013) Arenaviridae. Fields Virology, 6th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia
Winn WC Jr, Walker DH (1975) The pathology of human Lassa fever. Bull World Health Organ 52(4–6):535–545
Baize S, Kaplon J, Faure C, Pannetier D, Georges-Courbot MC, Deubel V (2004) Lassa virus infection of human dendritic cells and macrophages is productive but fails to activate cells. J Immunol 172(5):2861–2869
Hensley LE, Smith MA, Geisbert JB, Fritz EA, Daddario-DiCaprio KM, Larsen T, Geisbert TW (2011) Pathogenesis of Lassa fever in cynomolgus macaques. Virol J 8:205. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-205
Pannetier D, Reynard S, Russier M, Journeaux A, Tordo N, Deubel V, Baize S (2011) Human dendritic cells infected with the nonpathogenic Mopeia virus induce stronger T-cell responses than those infected with Lassa virus. J Virol 85(16):8293–8306. doi:10.1128/JVI.02120-10
Qi X, Lan S, Wang W, Schelde LM, Dong H, Wallat GD, Ly H, Liang Y, Dong C (2010) Cap binding and immune evasion revealed by Lassa nucleoprotein structure. Nature 468(7325):779–783. doi:10.1038/nature09605
Hastie KM, Kimberlin CR, Zandonatti MA, MacRae IJ, Saphire EO (2011) Structure of the Lassa virus nucleoprotein reveals a dsRNA-specific 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity essential for immune suppression. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(6):2396–2401. doi:10.1073/pnas.1016404108
Reynard S, Russier M, Fizet A, Carnec X, Baize S (2014) Exonuclease domain of the Lassa virus nucleoprotein is critical to avoid RIG-I signaling and to inhibit the innate immune response. J Virol 88(23):13923–13927. doi:10.1128/JVI.01923-14
Russier M, Reynard S, Carnec X, Baize S (2014) The exonuclease domain of Lassa virus nucleoprotein is involved in antigen-presenting-cell-mediated NK cell responses. J Virol 88(23):13811–13820. doi:10.1128/JVI.01908-14
Xing J, Ly H, Liang Y (2015) The Z proteins of pathogenic but not nonpathogenic arenaviruses inhibit RIG-I-like receptor-dependent interferon production. J Virol 89(5):2944–2955. doi:10.1128/JVI.03349-14
Fan L, Briese T, Lipkin WI (2010) Z proteins of New World arenaviruses bind RIG-I and interfere with type I interferon induction. J Virol 84(4):1785–1791. doi:10.1128/JVI.01362-09
Monath TP, Vasconcelos PF (2015) Yellow fever. J Clin Virol 64:160–173. doi:10.1016/j.jcv.2014.08.030
Monath TP (2005) Yellow fever vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 4(4):553–574. doi:10.1586/14760584.4.4.553
Organization WH (2017) Yellow fever—Brazil. http://www.who.int/csr/don/13-january-2017-yellow-fever-brazil/en/
Monath TP, Barrett AD (2003) Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of yellow fever. Adv Virus Res 60:343–395
Monath TP (2008) Treatment of yellow fever. Antivir Res 78(1):116–124. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2007.10.009
Monath TP (2001) Yellow fever: an update. Lancet Infect Dis 1(1):11–20. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(01)00016-0
Munoz-Jordan JL, Laurent-Rolle M, Ashour J, Martinez-Sobrido L, Ashok M, Lipkin WI, Garcia-Sastre A (2005) Inhibition of alpha/beta interferon signaling by the NS4B protein of flaviviruses. J Virol 79(13):8004–8013. doi:10.1128/JVI.79.13.8004-8013.2005
Laurent-Rolle M, Morrison J, Rajsbaum R, Macleod JM, Pisanelli G, Pham A, Ayllon J, Miorin L, Martinez-Romero C, tenOever BR, Garcia-Sastre A (2014) The interferon signaling antagonist function of yellow fever virus NS5 protein is activated by type I interferon. Cell Host Microbe 16(3):314–327. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2014.07.015
Fernandez-Garcia MD, Meertens L, Chazal M, Hafirassou ML, Dejarnac O, Zamborlini A, Despres P, Sauvonnet N, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, Jouvenet N, Amara A (2016) Vaccine and wild-type strains of yellow fever virus engage distinct entry mechanisms and differentially stimulate antiviral immune responses. MBio 7(1):e01956–e01915. doi:10.1128/mBio.01956-15
Stephen EL, Sammons ML, Pannier WL, Baron S, Spertzel RO, Levy HB (1977) Effect of a nuclease-resistant derivative of polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid complex on yellow fever in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). J Infect Dis 136(1):122–126
Arroyo JI, Apperson SA, Cropp CB, Marafino BJ Jr, Monath TP, Tesh RB, Shope RE, Garcia-Blanco MA (1988) Effect of human gamma interferon on yellow fever virus infection. AmJTrop Med Hyg 38(3):647–650
Monath TP, Brinker KR, Chandler FW, Kemp GE, Cropp CB (1981) Pathophysiologic correlations in a rhesus monkey model of yellow fever with special observations on the acute necrosis of B cell areas of lymphoid tissues. AmJTrop Med Hyg 30(2):431–443
Engelmann F, Josset L, Girke T, Park B, Barron A, Dewane J, Hammarlund E, Lewis A, Axthelm MK, Slifka MK, Messaoudi I (2014) Pathophysiologic and transcriptomic analyses of viscerotropic yellow fever in a rhesus macaque model. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(11):e3295. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003295
ter Meulen J, Sakho M, Koulemou K, Magassouba N, Bah A, Preiser W, Daffis S, Klewitz C, Bae HG, Niedrig M, Zeller H, Heinzel-Gutenbrunner M, Koivogui L, Kaufmann A (2004) Activation of the cytokine network and unfavorable outcome in patients with yellow fever. J Infect Dis 190(10):1821–1827. doi:10.1086/425016
Kuhn JH, Clawson AN, Rodoshitzky SR, Wahl-Jensen V, Bavari S, Jahrling PB (2014) Viral hemorrhagic fevers: history and definitions. In: Singh SK, Ruzek D (eds) Viral hemorrhagic fevers. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Feldmann H, Bugany H, Mahner F, Klenk HD, Drenckhahn D, Schnittler HJ (1996) Filovirus-induced endothelial leakage triggered by infected monocytes/macrophages. J Virol 70(4):2208–2214
Geisbert TW, Hensley LE (2004) Ebola virus: new insights into disease aetiopathology and possible therapeutic interventions. Expert Rev Mol Med 6(20):1–24
Geisbert TW, Young HA, Jahrling PB, Davis KJ, Kagan E, Hensley LE (2003) Mechanisms underlying coagulation abnormalities in ebola hemorrhagic fever: overexpression of tissue factor in primate monocytes/macrophages is a key event. J Infect Dis 188(11):1618–1629
Feldmann H (2010) Are we any closer to combating Ebola infections? Lancet 375(9729):1850–1852. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60597-1
Baize S, Leroy EM, Mavoungou E, Fisher-Hoch SP (2000) Apoptosis in fatal Ebola infection. Does the virus toll the bell for immune system? Apoptosis 5(1):5–7
Bradfute SB, Braun DR, Shamblin JD, Geisbert JB, Paragas J, Garrison A, Hensley LE, Geisbert TW (2007) Lymphocyte death in a mouse model of Ebola virus infection. J Infect Dis 196(Suppl 2):S296–S304. doi:10.1086/520602
Bradfute SB, Warfield KL, Bavari S (2008) Functional CD8+ T cell responses in lethal Ebola virus infection. J Immunol 180(6):4058–4066
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This article is a contribution to the special issue on Cytokine Storm in Infectious Diseases -- Guest Editor: John Teijaro.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Basler, C.F. Molecular pathogenesis of viral hemorrhagic fever. Semin Immunopathol 39, 551–561 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-017-0637-x
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00281-017-0637-x