Abstract
This study investigated the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using particle and gas-phase air samples collected in the Ovaakca and Cumalikizik region of Bursa, between May and September 2017. The concentration of Σ16PAH measured in the gas phase, for Ovaakca and Cumalikizik, were 5.32 ± 1.98 and 4.91 ± 3.41 ng m−3, respectively; and for the particle phase, 0.81 ± 0.56 and 1.84 ± 1.82 ng m−3, respectively. The coefficient of gas-particle partitioning was related to the excessive cooled vapor pressure. The determined slope values were − 0.319 (Ovaakca) and − 0.505 (Cumalikizik), which showed the strong effect of organic carbon absorption and the distance to the equilibrium. These experimental values were compared with the results obtained using the octanol/air and Dual partition models, and Dual partition model showed more accurate values than the octanol/air model. The relations between temperature and concentration in the gas phase of PAHs were evaluated using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation. The results indicated the influence of long-range transport of the atmospheric concentrations of PAHs at the regions. Diagnostic ratio analysis showed that biomass burning, coal combustion, and vehicular emissions contributed greatly to the atmospheric PAHs in the regions. In principal component analysis analysis, wood-burning was found to be the predominant parameter in addition to PAH sources determined with diagnostic ratios. In this study, the lifetime risk of lung cancer was calculated according to the mean and max BaP-TEQ values. When calculated according to the average values, while both regions were acceptable risk levels (Ovaakca: 2.6 × 10−6 and Cumalikizik: 8.6 × 10−6), at low-risk level was determined according to max BaP-TEQ values only in the Cumalikizik region (1.93 × 10−5).
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akyuz M, Cabuk H (2010) Gas-particle partitioning and seasonal variation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of Zonguldak, Turkey. Sci Total Environ 408:5550–5558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.07.063
Alvarez AL, Pozo K, Paez MI, Estellano VH, Llanos Y, Focardi S (2016) Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in the atmosphere of Santiago de Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia along north–south transect using polyurethane foam disk as passive air samplers. Atmos Pollut Res 7:945–953
Bai H, Zhang H (2016) Characteristics, sources, and cytotoxicity of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban roadside areas of Hangzhou, China. J Environ Sci Health Part A 52(4):303–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2016.1258862
Birgul A, Tasdemir Y (2015) Concentrations, gas-particle partitioning, and seasonal variations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at four sites in Turkey. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 68:46–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-014-0105-8
Bootdee S, Chantara S, Prapamontol T (2016) Determination of PM2.5 and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from incense burning emission at shrine for health risk assessment. Atmos Pollut Res 7:680–689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2016.03.002
Callen MS, de la Cruz MT, Lopez JM, Murillo R, Navarro MV, Mastral AM (2008) Some inferences on the mechanism of atmospheric gas/particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) at Zaragoza (Spain). Chemosphere 73:1357–1365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.06.063
Cao L, Wang D, Wen Y, He H, Chen A, Hu D, Tan A, Shi T, Zhu K, Ma J, Zhou Y, Chen W (2020) Effects of environmental and lifestyle exposures on urinary levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites: A cross-sectional study of urban adults in China. Chemosphere 240:124898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124898
Cetin B, Ozturk F, Keles M, Yurdakul S (2017) PAHs and PCBs in an Eastern Mediterranean megacity, Istanbul: their spatial and temporal distributions, air–soil exchange and toxicological effects. Environ Pollut 220:1322–1332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.002
Chirico R, Spezzano P, Cataldi D (2007) Gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during the spring and summer in a suburban site near major traffic arteries. Polycyclic Aromat Compd 27(5):401–423. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406630701624366
Cindoruk SS, Tasdemir Y (2007) Characterization of gas/particle concentrations and partitioning of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) measured in an urban site of Turkey. Environ Pollut 148:325–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2006.10.018
Cindoruk SS, Esen F, Tasdemir Y (2007) Concentration and gas/particle partitioning of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) at an industrial site at Bursa, Turkey. Atmos Res 85:338–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.02.004
Dachs J, Eisenreich SJ (2000) Adsorption onto aerosol soot carbon dominates gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ Sci Technol 34(17):3690–3697
Demircioglu E, Sofuoglu A, Odabasi M (2011) Particle-phase dry deposition and air soil gas exchange of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Izmir, Turkey. J Hazard Mater 186:328–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11.005
Esen F (2006) Gas/particle concentration distributions and dry deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Bursa atmosphere. Ph.D. Thesis. Uludag University, Institute of Science and Technology, Bursa
Esen F, Cindoruk SS, Tasdemir Y (2006) Ambient concentrations and gas/particle partitioning of PAHs in an urban site in Turkey. Environ Forensics 7:303–312. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275920600996099
Esen F, Tasdemir Y, Vardar N (2008) Atmospheric concentrations of PAHs, their possible sources and gas-to-particle partitioning at a residential site of Bursa, Turkey. Atmos Res 88:243–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.11.022
Esen F, Tasdemir Y, Bozkurt YM (2019) Assessments of seasonal trend, gas–particle partitioning and deposition flux of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a semi-rural site. J Environ Sci Health Part A 54(6):572–581. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2019.1574158
Evci YM (2016) Investigation of seasonal changes of polyhyal aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) by active and passive sampling methods. Master Thesis. Uludag University, Institute of Science and Technology, Bursa
Franco CFJ, de Resende MF, de Almeida Furtado L, Brasil TF, Eberlin MN, Netto ADP (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in street dust of Rio de Janeiro and Niterói, Brazil: particle size distribution, sources and cancer risk assessment. Sci Total Environ 599–600:305–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.060
Finizio A, Mackay D, Bidleman T, Harner T (1997) Octanol-air partitioning coefficients as a predictor of partitioning of semi-volatile organic chemicals to aerosols. Atmos Environ 31(15):2289–2296
Gaga EO, Ari A (2011) Gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an urban traffic site in Eskisehir, Turkey. Atmos Res 99:207–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.10.013
Gaga EO, Ari A (2019) Gas-particle partitioning and health risk estimation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at urban, suburban and tunnel atmospheres: use of measured EC and OC in model calculations. Atmos Pollut Res 10:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2018.05.004
Gaga EO, Ari A, Dogeroglu T, Cakırca EE, Machin NE (2012) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an industrialized city, Kocaeli, Turkey: study of seasonal variations, influence of meteorological parameters and health risk estimation. J Environ Monit 14:2219. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2em30118k
Gevao B, Al-Bahloul M, Zafar J, Al-Matrouk K, Helaleh M (2007) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor air and dust in kuwait: implications for sources and nondietary human exposure. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 53:503–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-006-0261-6
Hamid N, Syed JH, Junaid M, Mahmood A, Li J, Zhang G, NaseemMalik R (2018) Elucidating the urban levels, sources and health risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Pakistan: Implications for changing energy demand. Sci Total Environ 619–620:165–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.080
Harner T, Bidleman TF (1998) Octanol-air partition coefficient for describing particle/gas partitioning of aromatic compounds in urban air. Environ Sci Technol 32:1494–1502
He J, Balasubramanian R (2009) A comparative evaluation of passive and active samplers for measurements of gaseous semi-volatile organic compounds in the tropical atmosphere. Atmos Environ 44:884–891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.12.009
Hong HS, Yin HL, Wang XH, Ya C (2007) Seasonal variation of PM10-bound PAHs in the atmosphere of Xiamen, China. Atmos Res 85:429–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2007.03.004
Hu H, Tian M, Zhang L, Yang F, Peng C, Chen Y, Shi G, Yao X, Jiang C, Wang J (2019) Sources and gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric parent, oxygenated, and nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a humidcity in southwest China. Atmos Environ 206:10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2019.02.041
Jia J, Bi C, Zhang J, Jin X, Chen Z (2018) Characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in vegetables near industrial areas of Shanghai, China: sources, exposure, andcancer risk. Environ Pollut 241:750–758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.06.002
Jung HK, Yan B, Chillrud SN, Perera PF, Whyatt R, Camann D, Kinney PL, Miller LR (2010) Assessment of Benzo(a)pyrene-equivalent carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of residential indoor versus outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons exposing young children in New York City. Int J Environ Res Public Health 7(5):1889–1900. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7051889
Kargar N, Matin G, Abbas Matin A, Buyukisik HB (2017) Biomonitoring, status and source risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using honeybees, pine tree leaves, and propolis. Chemosphere 186:140–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.07.127
Kumar A, Schimmelmann A, Sauer EP, Brassell CS (2017) Distribution and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in laminated Santa Barbara Basin sediments. Org Geochem 113:303–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.orggeochem.2017.07.022
Lambert O, Veyrand B, Durand S, Marchand P, Le Bizec B, Piroux M, Puyo S, Thorin C, Delbac F, Pouliquen H (2012) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: bees, honey and pollen as sentinels for environmental chemical contaminants. Chemosphere 86:98–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.09.025
Li P, Wang Y, Li Y, Wai K, Li H, Tong L (2016a) Gas-particle partitioning and precipitation scavenging of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the free troposphere in southern China. Atmos Environ 128:165–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.12.030
Li W, Shen G, Yuan C, Wang C, Shen H, Jiang H, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Su S, Lin N, Tao S (2016b) The gas/particle partitioning of nitro- and oxy-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of northern China. Atmos Res 172–173:66–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.12.008
Liu B, Xue Z, Zhu X, Jia C (2017) Long-term trends (1990-2014), health risks, and sources of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the U.S. Environ Pollut 220:1171–1179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.018
Loppi S, Pozo K, Estellano VH, Corsolini S, Sardella G, Paoli L (2015) Accumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by lichen transplants: comparison with gas-phase passive air samplers. Chemosphere 134:39–43
Ma LW, Sun DZ, Shen WG, Yang M, QiH Liu LY, Shen JM, Li YF (2011) Atmospheric concentrations, sources and gas-particle partitioning of PAHs in Beijing after the 29th Olympic Games. Environ Pollut 159:1794–1801. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.03.025
Miguel AH, Kirchstetter TW, Harley RA, Hering SV (1998) On-road emissions of particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and black carbon from gasoline and diesel vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 32:450–455
Odabasi M, Cetin E, Sofuoglu A (2006) Determination of octanol-air partition coefficients and supercooled liquid vapor pressures of PAHs as a function of temperature: application to gas-particle partitioning in an urban atmosphere. Atmos Environ 40:6615–6625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.05.051
Pankow JF (1994) An absorption model of gas/particle partitioning of organic compoundsin the atmosphere. Atmos Environ 21:185–188
Pankow JF, Bidleman TF (1992) Interdependence of the slopes and intercepts from log-log correlations of measured gas-particle partitioning and vapor pressure-I. Theory and analysis of available data. Atmos Environ 26:1071–1080
Perugini M, Serafino G, Giacomelli A, Medrzycki P, Sabatini AG, Persano OL, Marinelli E, Amorena M (2009) Monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in bees (Apis mellifera) and honey in urban areas and wildlife reserves. J Agric Food Chem 57:7440–7444. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf9011054
Petrovic M, Sremacki M, Radonic J, Mihajlovic I, Obrovski B, Miloradov MV (2018) Health risk assessment of PAHs, PCBs and OCPs in atmospheric air of municipal solid waste landfill in Novi Sad, Serbia. Sci Total Environ 644:1201–1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.008
Pongpiachan S, Hattayanone M, Tipmanee D, Suttinun O, Khumsup C, Kittikoon I, Hirunyatrakul P (2017) Chemical characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in 2013 Rayong oil spill-affected coastal areas of Thailand. Environ Pollut. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.096
Pozo K, Estellano VH, Harner T, Diaz-Robles L, Cereceda-Balic F, Etcharren P, Pozo K, Vidal V, Guerrero F, Vergara-Fernandez A (2015) Assessing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) using passive air sampling in the atmosphere of one of the most wood-smoke-polluted cities in Chile: the case study of Temuco. Chemosphere 134(2015):475–481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.077
Pratt GC, Herbrandson C, Krause MJ, Schmitt C, Lippert CJ, McMahon CR, Ellickson KM (2018) Measurements of gas and particle polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air at urban, rural and near-roadway sites. Atmos Environ 179:268–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.02.035
Ratola N, Amigo JM, Alves A (2010) Comprehensive assessment of pine needles as bioindicators of PAHs using multivariate analysis: the importance of temporal trends. Chemosphere 81(11):1517–1525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.08.031
Ravindra K, Sokhi R, Grieken RV (2008) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmos Environ 42:2895–2921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.12.010
Sahu SK, Pandit GG, Puranik VD (2008) Dry deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with atmospheric particulate matters in an urban site, Mumbai, India. Aerosol Air Qual Res 8(4):437–446
Sampath S, Shanmugam G, Kumar KS, Ramaswamy BR (2015) Spatial-temporal distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Atmospheric Air of Tamil Nadu, India, and human health risk assessment. Environ Forensics 16(1):76–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/15275922.2014.991002
Schifman LA, Boving TB (2015) Spatial and seasonal atmospheric PAH deposition patterns and sources in Rhode Island. Atmos Environ 120(2015):253–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.056
Sitaras LE, Bakeas EB, Siskos PA (2004) Gas/particle partitioning of seven volatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a heavy traffic urban area. Sci Total Environ 327:249–264
Sofuoglu A, Odabasi M, Tasdemir Y, Khalili NR, Holsen TM (2001) Temperature dependence of gas-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon and organochlorine pesticide concentrations in Chicago air. Atmos Environ 35:6503–6510
Syed JH, Iqbal M, Zhong G, Katsoyiannis A, Yadav IC, Li J, Zhang G (2017) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Chinese forest soils: profile composition, spatial variations and source apportionment. Sci Rep 7:2692. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-02999-0
Tasdemir Y, Vardar N, Odabasi M, Holsen TM (2004) Concentrations and gas/particle partitioning of PCBs in Chicago. Environ Pollut 131:35–44
Tasdemir Y, Esen F (2007) Urban air PAHs: concentrations, temporal changes and gas/particle partitioning at a traffic site in Turkey. Atmos Res 84:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2006.04.003
Tasdemir Y, Esen F (2008) Deposition of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their mass transfer coefficients determined at a trafficked site. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 55:191–198
Tobiszewski M, Namiesnik J (2012) PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environ Pollut 162:110–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.10.025
USEPA (2011) Exposure factors handbook: 2011 Edition. EPA/600/R-09
Verma PK, Sah D, Kumari KM, Lakhani A (2017) Atmospheric concentrations and gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nitro-PAHs at Indo-Gangetic sites. Environ Sci Process Impacts 19:1051. https://doi.org/10.1039/c7em00168a
Wang W, Simonich SL, Wang W, Giri B, Zhao J, Xue M, Cao J, Lu X, Tao S (2011) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations and gas/particle partitioning at background, rural village and urban sites in the North China Plain. Atmos Res 99:197–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.10.002
Wang Z, Na G, Ma X, Fang X, Ge L, Gao H, Yao Z (2013) Occurrence and gas/particle partitioning of PAHs in the atmosphere from the North Pacific to the Arctic Ocean. Atmos Environ 77:640–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.052
World Health Organization (WHO) (2000) Air quality guidelines for Europe, 2nd edn. WHO Regional Publications, European Series, No. 91. WHO, Copenhagen
Xie M, Hannigan PM, Barsanti CK (2014) Gas/particle partitioning of n-alkanes, PAHs and oxygenated PAHs in urban Denver. Atmos Environ 95:355–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.06.056
Yang J, Xu W, Cheng H (2018) Seasonal variations and sources of airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Chengdu, China. Atmosphere 9:63. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9020063
Zhao J, Zhang F, Xu L, Chen J, Xu Y (2011) Spatial and temporal distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere of Xiamen, China. Sci Total Environ 409:5318–5327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.024
Zhang W, Zhang S, Wan C, Yue D, Ye Y, Wang X (2008) Source diagnostics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban road runoff, dust, rain and canopy through fall. Environ Pollut 153:594–601
Zhou C, Zhu X, Wang Z, Ma X, Chen J, Ni Y, Wang W, Mu J, Li X (2013) Gas-particle partitioning of PAHs in the urban air of Dalian, China: measurements and assessments. Polycycl Aromat Compd 33:31–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2012.683467
Zhu X, Zhou C, Henkelmann B, Wang Z, Ma X, Pfister G, Schramm KW, Chen J, Ni Y, Wang W, Mu J (2013) Monitoring of PAHs profiles in the urban air of Dalian, China with active high-volume sampler and semipermeable membrane devices. Polycycl Aromat Compd 33(3):265–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/10406638.2013.777672
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Scientific and Technologic Research Council of Turkey (Project No. 116Y208). The authors thank M. Ferhat Sari for his valuable help during the painstaking laboratory studies. Also, they thank Dr. M. Ertan Gunes for his help during the sampling section.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gurkan Ayyildiz, E., Esen, F. Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) at Two Sites, in Bursa, Turkey: Determination of Concentrations, Gas–Particle Partitioning, Sources, and Health Risk. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 78, 350–366 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00698-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-019-00698-7