Skip to main content

The Evolution of Feminine Beauty

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Exploring Transdisciplinarity in Art and Sciences

Abstract

If you enter the word “beauty” in a search engine, almost all the pictures you will see appear on your computer screen are of attractive young women. In Western society, the concept of beauty is closely associated with physical attractiveness and especially feminine physical attractiveness. Beautiful women are everywhere: on the walls of our cities, on the screens of our movie theaters, on the glossy paper of our magazines. But is this phenomenon restricted to contemporary societies? It does not seem so, as women’s beauty has occupied the minds of painters, poets, philosophers, musicians, and writers for centuries. Indeed, in arts, depictions of idealized female beauty far outweigh those depicting ideals of male beauty. Why are human beings so fascinated by female attractiveness? The aim of this chapter is to show how evolutionary theory can help us to understand this passion for women’s bodies and their beauty, and explore what the arts can teach us about human beauty while addressing the question of its universality.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alaluf, S., Heinrich, U., Stahl, W., Tronnier, H., & Wiseman, S. (2002). Dietary carotenoids contribute to normal human skin color and UV photosensitivity. Journal of Nutrition, 132, 399–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alley, T. R. (1988). The effects of growth and aging on facial aesthetics. In Social and applied aspects of perceiving faces (pp. 51–62). Hillsdale, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Amarin, V. N., & Akasheh, H. F. (2001). Advanced maternal age and pregnancy outcome.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, J. L., Crawford, C. B., Nadeau, J., & Lindberg, T. (1992). Was the duchess of windsor right—A cross-cultural review of the socioecology of ideals of female body shape. Ethology and Sociobiology, 13, 197–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, M. B. (1994). Sexual selection. Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baird, D. D., Wilcox, A. J., Weinberg, C. R., Kamel, F., McConnaughey, D. R., Musey, P. I., et al. (1997). Preimplantation hormonal differences between the conception and non-conception menstrual cycles of 32 normal women. Human Reproduction, 12, 2607–2613. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/12.12.2607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ball, K., & Crawford, D. (2005). Socioeconomic status and weight change in adults: A review. Social Science and Medicine, 60, 1987–2010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balzarini, R. N., Dobson, K., Chin, K., & Campbell, L. (2016). Does exposure to erotica reduce attraction and love for romantic partners in men? Independent replications of Kenrick, Gutierres, and Goldberg (1989) study 2. The Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.11.003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batres, C., & Perrett, D. I. (2014). The influence of the digital divide on face preferences in El Salvador: People without internet access prefer more feminine men, more masculine women, and women with higher adiposity. PLoS ONE, 9, e100966.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berridge, K. C. (2003). Pleasures of the brain. Brain and Cognition, 52, 106–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bestelmeyer, P. E. G., Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., Little, A. C., Perrett, D. I., Schneider, A., et al. (2008). Sex-contingent face aftereffects depend on perceptual category rather than structural encoding. Cognition, 107, 353–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.07.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beugnot, A. (1835). Histoire de la destruction du paganisme en Occident. Firmin Didot frères.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjorntorp, P. (1991). Adipose-tissue distribution and function. International Journal of Obesity, 15, 67–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boothroyd, L. G., Jucker, J.-L., Thornborrow, T., Jamieson, M. A., Burt, D. M., Barton, R. A., et al. (2016). Television exposure predicts body size ideals in rural Nicaragua. British Journal of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boothroyd, L. G., Tovée, M. J., & Pollet, T. V. (2012). Visual diet versus associative learning as mechanisms of change in body size preferences. PLoS ONE, 7, e48691. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0048691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Botwin, M. D., Buss, D. M., & Shackelford, T. K. (1997). Personality and mate preferences: Five factors in mate selection and marital satisfaction. Journal of Personality, 65, 107–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bovet, J., Lao, J., Bartholomée, O., Caldara, R., & Raymond, M. (2016). Mapping female bodily features of attractiveness. Scientific Reports, 6, 18551. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep18551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bovet, J., Raymond, M. (2015). Preferred women’s waist-to-hip ratio variation over the last 2,500 years.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, P. J., & Konner, M. (1987). An anthropological perspective on obesity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 499, 29–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1989a). Toward an evolutionary psychology of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 39–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (1989b). Sex-differences in human mate preferences—evolutionary hypothesis tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, D. M. (2005). The handbook of evolutionary psychology. New Jersey: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butte, N. F., Wong, W. W., Treuth, M. S., Ellis, K. J., & Smith, E. O. (2004). Energy requirements during pregnancy based on total energy expenditure and energy deposition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79, 1078–1087.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buunk, B. P., & Dijkstra, P. (2005). A narrow waist versus broad shoulders: Sex and age differences in the jealousy-evoking characteristics of a rival’s body build. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 379–389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.01.020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buunk, B. P., Dijkstra, P., Kenrick, D. T., & Warntjes, A. (2001). Age preferences for mates as related to gender, own age, and involvement level. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 241–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byard, P. J. (1981). Quantitative genetics of human skin color. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 24, 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330240506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrd-Bredbenner, C., Murray, J., & Schlussel, Y. R. (2005). Temporal changes in anthropometric measurements of idealized females and young women in general. Women and Health, 41, 13–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caplan, J., Bradley, J., Fleming, J., Govenar, A., Guest, H., Gustafson, M., et al. (2000). Written on the body: The tattoo in european and american history. London: Reaktion Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (1995). Hormones, sex, and status in women. Hormones and Behavior, 29, 354–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cashdan, E. (2003). Hormones and competitive aggression in women. Aggressive Behavior, 29, 107–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A. M., Thornley, B., Tomlinson, L., Galletley, C., & Norman, R. J. (1998). Weight loss in obese infertile women results in improvement in reproductive outcome for all forms of fertility treatment. Human Reproduction, 13, 1502–1505. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/13.6.1502.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, J. M., Slaughter, V., & Mealey, L. (2004). The development of preferences for specific body shapes. The Journal of Sex Research, 41, 5–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornelissen, P. L., Hancock, P. J. B., Kiviniemi, V., George, H. R., & Tovee, M. J. (2009). Patterns of eye movements when male and female observers judge female attractiveness, body fat and waist-to-hip ratio. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30, 417–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crossley, K. L., Cornelissen, P. L., & Tovee, M. J. (2012). What is an attractive body? Using an interactive 3D program to create the ideal body for you and your partner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R., Barbee, A. P., & Philhower, C. L. (2002). Dimensions of facial physical attractiveness: The intersection of biology and culture. In G. Rhodes & L. A. Zebrowitz (Eds.), Facial attrativeness: Evolutionary, cognitive, and social perspectives (pp. 193–238). Westport, CT, US: Ablex Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, M. R., Roberts, A. R., Wu, C. H., Barbee, A. P., & Druen, P. B. (1995). Their ideas of beauty are, on the whole, the same as ours—consistency and variability in the cross-cultural perception of female physical attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 261–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dabbs, J. M., Jr., Ruback, R. B., Frady, R. L., Hopper, C. H., & Sgoutas, D. S. (1988). Saliva testosterone and criminal violence among women. Personality and Individual Differences, 9, 269–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. London: John Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickey, R. P., Olar, T. T., Taylor, S. N., Curole, D. N., & Matulich, E. M. (1993). Relationship of endometrial thickness and pattern to fecundity in ovulation induction cycles: Effect of clomiphene citrate alone and with human menopausal gonadotropin. Fertility and Sterility, 59, 756–760. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)55855-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dijkstra, P., & Buunk, B. P. (2001). Sex differences in the jealousy-evoking nature of a rival’s body build. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 335–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(01)00070-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dion, K. K. (2002). Cultural perspectives on facial attractiveness. In G. Rhodes & L. A. Zebrowitz (Eds.), Facial attrativeness: Evolutionary, cognitive, and social perspectives (pp. 239–259). Westport, CT, US: Ablex Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dion, K. K., Walster, E., & Berschei, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dipboye, R. L., Arvey, R. D., & Terpstra, D. E. (1977). Sex and physical attractiveness of raters and applicants as determinants of resume evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 288–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dipboye, R. L., Fromkin, H. L., & Wiback, K. (1975). Relative importance of applicant sex, attractiveness, and scholastic standing in evaluation of job applicant resumes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 39–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, B. J., Dixson, A. F., Bishop, P. J., & Parish, A. (2010a). Human physique and sexual attractiveness in men and women: A New Zealand–U.S. comparative study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 798–806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, B. J., Dixson, A. F., Li, B. G., & Anderson, M. J. (2007a). Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: Sexual preferences of men and women in China. American Journal of Human Biology, 19, 88–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, B. J., Dixson, A. F., Morgan, B., & Anderson, M. J. (2007b). Human physique and sexual attractiveness: Sexual preferences of men and women in Bakossiland, Cameroon. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 369–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9093-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, B. J., Grimshaw, G. M., Linklater, W. L., & Dixson, A. F. (2009). Eye-tracking of men’s preferences for waist-to-hip ratio and breast size of women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 43–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, B. J., Grimshaw, G. M., Linklater, W. L., & Dixson, A. F. (2011). Eye tracking of men’s preferences for female breast size and areola pigmentation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 51–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixson, B. J., Sagata, K., Linklater, W. L., & Dixson, A. F. (2010b). Male preferences for female waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index in the highlands of papua new guinea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 141, 620–625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunson, D. B., Colombo, B., & Baird, D. D. (2002). Changes with age in the level and duration of fertility in the menstrual cycle. Human Reproduction, 17, 1399–1403. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/17.5.1399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., Ashmore, R. D., & Longo, L. C. (1991). What Is beautiful is good, but—A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness Stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 109–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Endler, J. A., & Basolo, A. L. (1998). Sensory ecology, receiver biases and sexual selection. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 13, 415–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01471-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fan, J. T., Liu, F., Wu, J., & Dai, W. (2004). Visual perception of female physical attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271, 347–352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Faries, M. D., & Bartholomew, J. B. (2012). The role of body fat in female attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33, 672–681.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., Grammer, K., & Matts, P. J. (2006). Visible skin color distribution plays a role in the perception of age, attractiveness, and health in female faces. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 433–442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.08.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., Grammer, K., & Thornhill, R. (2001). Human (Homo sapiens) facial attractiveness in relation to skin texture and color. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115, 92–99. https://doi.org/10.1037//0735-7036.115.1.92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., & Matts, P. (2008). The effects of skin color distribution and topography cues on the perception of female facial age and health. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 22, 493–498. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2007.02512.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., & Neave, N. (2005). The biology of facial beauty. International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 27, 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2005.00286.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R. A. (1930). The genetical theory of natural selection: A complete variorum edition. OUP Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forestell, C. A., Humphrey, T. M., & Stewart, S. H. (2004). Is beauty in the eye of the beholder?: Effects of weight and shape on attractiveness ratings of female line drawings by restrained and nonrestrained eaters. Eating Behaviors, 5, 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2004.01.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freese, J., & Meland, S. (2002). Seven tenths incorrect: Heterogeneity and change in the waist-to-hip ratios of Playboy centerfold models and Miss America pageant winners. The Journal of Sex Research, 39, 133–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisch, R. E. (1987). Body-Fat, menarche, fitness and fertility. Human Reproduction, 2, 521–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisch, R. E., & McArthur, J. W. (1974). Menstrual cycles—Fatness as a determinant of minimum weight for height necessary for their maintenance or onset. Science, 185, 949–951.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, R. C., Houle, D., Travis, J., Price, A. E. T., & Losos, E. J. B. (2005). Sensory bias as an explanation for the evolution of mate preferences. American Naturalist, 166, 437–446. https://doi.org/10.1086/444443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Baguma, P. (1994). Cross-cultural differences in the evaluation of male and female body shapes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 15, 81–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Dias, M., & McClelland, A. (1998). The role of body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast size in judgments of female attractiveness. Sex Roles, 39, 311–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Lavancy, M., & McClelland, A. (2001). Waist to hip ratio and facial attractiveness: A pilot study. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 491–502.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., McClelland, A., & Omer, L. (2003). A cross-cultural comparison of ratings of perceived fecundity and sexual attractiveness as a function of body weight and waist-to-hip ratio. Psychology Health and Medicine, 8, 219–2304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Mistry, D., & McClelland, A. (2004). The influence of age of the face and the waist to hip ratio on judgements of female attractiveness and traits. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1171–1185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Moutafi, J., & Baguma, P. (2002). A cross-cultural study on the role of weight and waist-to-hip ratio on female attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 729–745.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Petrides, K. V., & Constantinides, A. (2005). The effects of body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio on ratings of female attractiveness, fecundity, and health. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 1823–1834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2004.11.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., & Swami, V. (2007). Perception of female buttocks and breast size in profile. Social Behavior and Personality an International Journal, 35, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Swami, V., & Shah, K. (2006). Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio and breast size correlates of ratings of attractiveness and health. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 443–454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furnham, A., Tan, T., & McManus, C. (1997). Waist-to-hip ratio and preferences for body shape: A replication and extension. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 539–549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner, D. M., Garfinkel, P. E., Schwartz, D., & Thompson, M. (1980). Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psychological Reports, 47, 483–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gitter, A. G., Lomranz, J., Saxe, L., & Bar-Tal, Y. (1983). Perceptions of female physique characteristics by american and israeli students. Journal of Social Psychology, 121, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1983.9924460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glendinning, J. I. (1994). Is the bitter rejection response always adaptive? Physiology and Behavior, 56, 1217–1227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grammer, K., Fink, B., Møller, A. P., & Thornhill, R. (2003). Darwinian aesthetics: Sexual selection and the biology of beauty. Biological Reviews, 78, 385–407. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1464793102006085.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grammer, K., & Thornhill, R. (1994). Human (Homo sapiens) facial attractiveness and sexual selection: The role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 108, 233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton-Fairley, D., Kiddy, D., Watson, H., Paterson, C., & Franks, S. (1992). Association of moderate obesity with a poor pregnancy outcome in women with polycystic ovary syndrome treated with low dose gonadotrophin. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 99, 128–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haselton, M. G., & Gildersleeve, K. (2011). Can men detect ovulation? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20, 87–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411402668.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Havlíček, J., Třebický, V., Valentova, J. V., Kleisner, K., Akoko, R. M., Fialová, J., et al. (2017). Men’s preferences for women’s breast size and shape in four cultures. Evolution and Human Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.10.002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Held, B. L., Nader, S., Rodriguez-Rigau, L. J., Smith, K. D., & Steinberger, E. (1984). Acne and hyperandrogenism. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 10, 223–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(84)70026-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henss, R. (1995). Waist-to-hip ratio and attractiveness. Replication and extension. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 479–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henss, R. (2000). Waist-to-hip ratio and female attractiveness. Evidence from photographic stimuli and methodological considerations. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 501–513.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holliday, I. E., Longe, O. A., Thai, N. J., Hancock, P. J. B., & Tovee, M. J. (2011). BMI not WHR modulates BOLD fMRI responses in a sub-cortical reward network when participants judge the attractiveness of human female bodies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hönekopp, J., Manning, J. T., & Müller, C. (2006). Digit ratio (2D:4D) and physical fitness in males and females: Evidence for effects of prenatal androgens on sexually selected traits. Hormones and Behavior, 49, 545–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2005.11.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hudson, M. J., & Aoyama, M. (2007). Waist-to-hip ratios of Jomon figurines. Antiquity, 81, 961–971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, D. A. (1999). Effects of carotenoids on human immune function. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 58, 713–718. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665199000932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, S. M., & Gallup, G. G. (2003). Sex differences in morphological predictors of sexual behavior—Shoulder to hip and waist to hip ratios. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 173–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hume, D. K., & Montgomerie, R. (2001). Facial attractiveness signals different aspects of “quality” in women and men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 93–112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jablonski, N. G. (2013). Skin: A natural history. University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jablonski, N. G., & Chaplin, G. (2000). The evolution of human skin coloration. Journal of Human Evolution, 39, 57–106. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2000.0403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jasienska, G., Ziomkiewicz, A., Ellison, P. T., Lipson, S. F., & Thune, I. (2004). Large breasts and narrow waists indicate high reproductive potential in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271, 1213–1217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jennett, K. D. (2008). Female figurines of the upper paleolithic. University-San Marcos.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, V. S., & Franklin, M. (1993). Is beauty in the eye of the beholder. Ethology and Sociobiology, 14, 183–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, B. C., DeBruine, L. M., & Little, A. C. (2008). Adaptation reinforces preferences for correlates of attractive facial cues. Visual Cognition, 16, 849–858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, B. C., Little, A. C., Burt, D. M., & Perrett, D. I. (2004). When facial attractiveness is only skin deep. Perception, 33, 569–576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D., Brace, C. L., Jankowiak, W., Laland, K. N., Musselman, L. E., Langlois, J. H., et al. (1995). Sexual selection, physical attractiveness, and facial neoteny: Cross-cultural evidence and implications [and comments and reply]. Current Anthropology, 36, 723–748.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D., & Hill, K. (1993). Criteria of facial attractiveness in 5 populations. Human Nature an Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective, 4, 271–296.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalick, S. M., Zebrowitz, L. A., Langlois, J. H., & Johnson, R. M. (1998). Does human facial attractiveness honestly advertise health? longitudinal data on an evolutionary question. Psychological Science, 9, 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kandrik, M., Hahn, A. C., Fisher, C. I., Wincenciak, J., DeBruine, L. M., & Jones, B. C. (2016) Are physiological and behavioral immune responses negatively correlated? Evidence from hormone-linked differences in men’s face preferences. Hormones and Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.10.021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenrick, D. T., Gutierres, S. E., & Goldberg, L. L. (1989). Influence of popular erotica on judgments of strangers and mates. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenrick, D. T., & Keefe, R. C. (1992). Age preferences in mates reflect sex-differences in reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koehler, N., Simmons, L. W., Rhodes, G., & Peters, M. (2004). The relationship between sexual dimorphism in human faces and fluctuating asymmetry. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 271, S233–S236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kokko, H. (2001). Fisherian and “good genes” benefits of mate choice: How (not) to distinguish between them. Ecology Letters, 4, 322–326. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2001.00224.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokko, H., Brooks, R., Jennions, M. D., & Morley, J. (2003). The evolution of mate choice and mating biases. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 270, 653–664. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2002.2235.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokko, H., Jennions, M. D., & Brooks, R. (2006). Unifying and testing models of sexual selection. Annual Review of Ecology Evolution and Systematics, 37, 43–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Komori, M., Kawamura, S., & Ishihara, S. (2009). Effect of averageness and sexual dimorphism on the judgment of facial attractiveness. Vision Research, 49, 862–869.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korthase, K. M., & Trenholme, I. (1982). Perceived age and perceived physical attractiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 1251–1258. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1982.54.3c.1251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koscinski, K. (2013). Attractiveness of womens body: Body mass index, waisthip ratio, and their relative importance. Behavioral Ecology, 24, 914–925.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, S., Zebrowitz, L. A., San Giovanni, J. P., & Sherak, B. (1995). Infant preferences for attractiveness and babyfaceness. Studies in Perception and Action III, 389–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kwart, D. G., Foulsham, T., & Kingstone, A. (2012). Age and beauty are in the eye of the beholder. Perception, 41, 925–938.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lahti-Koski, M., Pietinen, P., Mannisto, S., & Vartiainen, E. (2000). Trends in waist-to-hip ratio and its determinants in adults in Finland from 1987 to 1997. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72, 1436–1444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallam, M., & Smoot, M. (2000). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 390–423.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langlois, J. H., Ritter, J. M., Roggman, L. A., & Vaughn, L. S. (1991). Facial diversity and infant preferences for attractive faces. Developmental Psychology, 27, 79–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Law Smith, M. J., Perrett, D. I., Jones, B. C., Cornwell, R. E., Moore, F. R., Feinberg, D. R., et al. (2006). Facial appearance is a cue to oestrogen levels in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 273, 135–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefevre, C. E., Ewbank, M. P., Calder, A. J., von dem Hagen, E., & Perrett, D. I. (2013). It is all in the face: Carotenoid skin coloration loses attractiveness outside the face. Biology Letters. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0633.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2015). Fruit over sunbed: Carotenoid skin coloration is found more attractive than melanin coloration. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 284–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2014.944194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leopold, D. A., Rhodes, G., Müller, K.-M., & Jeffery, L. (2005). The dynamics of visual adaptation to faces. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 272, 897–904. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2004.3022.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipson, S. F., & Ellison, P. T. (1996). Comparison of salivary steroid profiles in naturally occurring conception and non-conception cycles. Human Reproduction, 11, 2090–2096.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lissner, L., Bjorkelund, C., Heitmann, B. L., Lapidus, L., Bjorntorp, P., & Bengtsson, C. (1998). Secular increases in waist-hip ratio among Swedish women. International Journal of Obesity, 22, 1116–1120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucky, A. W. (1995). Hormonal correlates of acne and Hirsutism. American Journal of Medicine, 98, S89–S94. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(99)80064-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maestripieri, D., Klimczuk, A. C. E., Traficonte, D. M., & Wilson, M. C. (2014). A greater decline in female facial attractiveness during middle age reflects women’s loss of reproductive value.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Scutt, D., Whitehouse, G. H., & Leinster, S. J. (1997). Breast asymmetry and phenotypic quality in women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 223–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., & Taylor, R. P. (2001). Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: Implications for sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manson, J. E., Willett, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., Hunter, D. J., Hankinson, S. E., et al. (1995). Body-weight and mortality among women. New England Journal of Medicine, 333, 677–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marcinkowska, U. M., Kozlov, M. V., Cai, H., Contreras-Garduño, J., Dixson, B. J., Oana, G. A., et al. (2014). Cross-cultural variation in men’s preference for sexual dimorphism in women’s faces. Biology Letters. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2013.0850.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, F. W., Apicella, C., & Reed, D. (2005). Men’s preferences for women’s profile waist-to-hip ratio in two societies. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 458–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marlowe, F. W., & Wetsman, A. (2001). Preferred waist-to-hip ratio and ecology. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 481–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matts, P., Fink, B., Crammer, K., & Burquest, M. (2007). Skin color distribution plays a role in the perception of age, attractiveness and health in female faces. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 56, AB26–AB26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazur, A. (1986). U.S. trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation. The Journal of Sex Research, 22, 281–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzella, R., & Feingold, A. (1994). The effects of physical attractiveness, race, socioeconomic status, and gender of defendants and victims on judgments of mock jurors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 1315–1338. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01552.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLellan, B., & McKelvie, S. J. (1993). Effects of age and gender on perceived facial attractiveness. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 25, 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0078790.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mealey, L., Bridgstock, R., & Townsend, G. C. (1999). Symmetry and perceived facial attractiveness: A monozygotic co-twin comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Menken, J., & Larsen, U. (1986). Fertility rates and aging. In L. M. Jr & C. A. Paulsen (Eds.), Aging, reproduction, and the climacteric (pp. 147–166). US: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Molarius, A., Seidell, J. C., Sans, S., Tuomilehto, J., & Kuulasmaa, K. (2000). Educational level, relative body weight, and changes in their association over 10 years: An international perspective from the WHO MONICA project. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1260–1268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moller, A. P. (1999). Asymmetry as a predictor of growth, fecundity and survival. Ecology Letters, 2, 149–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moller, A. P., Soler, M., & Thornhill, R. (1995). Breast asymmetry, sexual selection, and human reproductive success. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 206–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montagna, W. (1982). The evolution of human skin. In P. A. B. Chiarelli & D. R. S. Corruccini (Eds.), Advanced views in primate biology (pp. 35–41). Berlin: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moran, C., Hernandez, E., Ruiz, J. E., Fonseca, M. E., Bermudez, J. A., & Zarate, A. (1999). Upper body obesity and hyperinsulinemia are associated with anovulation. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation, 47, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1159/000010052.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naeye, R. L. (1983). Maternal age, obstetric complications, and the outcome of pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 61, 210–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, L. D., & Morrison, E. L. (2005). The symptoms of resource scarcity: Judgments of food and finances influence preferences for potential partners. Psychological Science, 16, 167–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne, R. J. H., & Pagel, M. (2001). Inferring the origins of state-dependent courtship traits. American Naturalist, 157, 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1086/317007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penton-Voak, I. S., Jones, B. C., Little, A. C., Baker, S., Tiddeman, B., Burt, D. M., et al. (2001). Symmetry, sexual dimorphism in facial proportions and male facial attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 268, 1617–1623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrett, D. I., Burt, D. M., Penton-Voak, I. S., Lee, K. J., Rowland, D. A., & Edwards, R. (1999). Symmetry and human facial attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 295–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrett, D. I., Lee, K. J., Penton-Voak, I., Rowland, D., Yoshikawa, S., Burt, D. M., et al. (1998). Effects of sexual dimorphism on facial attractiveness. Nature, 394, 884–887.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrett, D. I., May, K. A., & Yoshikawa, S. (1994). Smith. Nature, 368, 239–242. https://doi.org/10.1038/368239a0.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrie, M. (1994). Improved growth and survival of offspring of peacocks with more elaborate trains. Nature, 371, 598–599. https://doi.org/10.1038/371598a0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettijohn, T. F., & Jungeberg, B. J. (2004). Playboy playmate curves: Changes in facial and body feature preferences across social and economic conditions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1186–1197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Platek, S. M., & Singh, D. (2010). Optimal waist-to-hip ratios in women activate neural reward centers in men.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puhl, R. M., & Boland, F. J. (2001). Predicting female physical attractiveness: Waist-to-hip ratio versus thinness. Psychology Evolution and Gender, 3, 27–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616660110049573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G. (2006). The evolutionary psychology of facial beauty. In: Annual review of psychology (pp. 199–226). Palo Alto: Annual reviews.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., Hickford, C., & Jeffery, L. (2000). Sex-typicality and attractiveness: Are supermale and superfemale faces super-attractive. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 125–140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., Jeffery, L., Watson, T. L., Clifford, C. W. G., & Nakayama, K. (2003). Fitting the mind to the world: Face adaptation and attractiveness aftereffects. Psychological Science, 14, 558–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., Jeffery, L., Watson, T. L., Jaquet, E., Winkler, C., & Clifford, C. W. G. (2004). Orientation-contingent face aftereffects and implications for face-coding mechanisms. Current Biology, 14, 2119–2123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., Proffitt, F., Grady, J. M., & Sumich, A. (1998). Facial symmetry and the perception of beauty. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 5, 659–669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, G., Yoshikawa, S., Clark, A., Lee, K., McKay, R., & Akamatsu, S. (2001). Attractiveness of facial averageness and symmetry in non-Western cultures: In search of biologically based standards of beauty. Perception, 30, 611–625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, P. C. (1981). Prehistoric Venuses: Symbols of motherhood or womanhood? Journal of Anthropological Research, 402–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickenlund, A., Carlström, K., Jörn Ekblom, B., Brismar, T. B., von Schoultz, B., & Lindén Hirschberg, A. (2003). Hyperandrogenicity is an alternative mechanism underlying oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea in female athletes and may improve physical performance. Fertility and Sterility, 79, 947–955.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rikowski, A., & Grammer, K. (1999). Human body odour, symmetry and attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 266, 869–874. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1999.0717.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rilling, J. K., Kaufman, T. L., Smith, E. O., Patel, R., & Worthman, C. M. (2009). Abdominal depth and waist circumference as influential determinants of human female attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 30, 21–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J., & Mitchell, G. W. (1952). The relation of obesity to menstrual disturbances. New England Journal of Medicine, 247, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm195207102470204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roser, M. (2014a). Life expectancy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roser, M. (2014b). Food per person.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roser, M. (2014c). GDP growth over the very long run.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roszell, P., Kennedy, D., & Grabb, E. (1989). Physical attractiveness and income attainment among canadians. Journal of Psychology, 123, 547–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1989.10543009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roumen, F. J. M. E., Doesburg, W. H., & Rolland, R. (1982). Hormonal patterns in infertile women with a deficient postcoital test. Fertility and Sterility, 38, 42–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)46394-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rozmus-Wrzesinska, M., & Pawlowski, B. (2005). Men’s ratings of female attractiveness are influenced more by changes in female waist size compared with changes in hip size. Biological Psychology, 68, 299–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubenstein, A. J., Kalakanis, L., & Langlois, J. H. (1999). Infant preferences for attractive faces: A cognitive explanation. Developmental Psychology, 35, 848.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, A. (1988). Marks of civilization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Santoro, N., Goldsmith, L. T., Heller, D., Illsley, N., McGovern, P., Molina, C., et al. (2000). Luteal progesterone relates to histological endometrial maturation in fertile women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 4207–4211. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.85.11.6974.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scheib, J., Gangestad, S. W., & Thornhill, R. (1999). Facial attractiveness, symmetry and cues of good genes. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 266, 1913–1917.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiavone, F. E., Rietschel, R. L., Sgoutas, D., & Harris, R. (1983). Elevated free testosterone levels in women with acne. Archives of Dermatology, 119, 799–802.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, T. R., & Mark, G. P. (1987). The taste system encodes stimulus toxicity. Brain Research, 414, 197–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sies, H. (1993). Strategies of antioxidant defense. European Journal of Biochemistry, 215, 213–219. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb18025.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1993a). Body shape and women’s attractiveness—The critical role of waist-to-hip ratio. Human Nature an Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective, 4, 297–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1993b). Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness—Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293–307.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1994). Is thin really beautiful and good—Relationship between waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and female attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 123–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1995a). Female judgment of male attractiveness and desirability for relationships: Role of waist-to-hip ratio and financial status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1089.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (1995b). Female health, attractiveness, and desirability for relationships: Role of breast asymmetry and waist-to-hip ratio. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 465–481.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (2002). Female mate value at a glance: Relationship of waist-to-hip ratio to health, fecundity and attractiveness. Neuroendocrinology Letters, 23, 81–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D. (2006). Universal allure of the hourglass figure: An evolutionary theory of female physical attractiveness. Clinics in Plastic Surgery, 33, 359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D., Dixson, B. J., Jessop, T. S., Morgan, B., & Dixson, A. F. (2010). Cross-cultural consensus for waist-hip ratio and women’s attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 176–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D., & Matthew Bronstad, P. (1997). Sex differences in the anatomical locations of human body scarification and tattooing as a function of pathogen prevalence. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 403–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(97)00089-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D., & Randall, P. K. (2007). Beauty is in the eye of the plastic surgeon: Waist-hip ratio (WHR) and women’s attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 329–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D., Renn, P., & Singh, A. (2007). Did the perils of abdominal obesity affect depiction of feminine beauty in the sixteenth to eighteenth century British literature? Exploring the health and beauty link. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274, 891–894.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D., & Singh, D. (2011). Shape and significance of feminine beauty: An evolutionary perspective. Sex Roles, 64, 723–731.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, D., & Young, R. K. (1995). Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, breasts, and hips: Role in judgments of female attractiveness and desirability for relationships. Ethology and Sociobiology, 16, 483–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slater, A., Von der Schulenburg, C., Brown, E., Badenoch, M., Butterworth, G., Parsons, S., et al. (1998). Newborn infants prefer attractive faces. Infant Behavior and Development, 21, 345–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. L., Cornelissen, P. L., & Tovée, M. J. (2007). Color 3D bodies and judgements of human female attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28, 48–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2006.05.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobal, J., & Stunkard, A. J. (1989). Socioeconomic-status and obesity—A review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 260–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sohn, M., & Bye, E. (2012). Visual analysis of body shape changes during pregnancy. International Journal of Fashion Design, Technology and Education, 5, 117–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorokowski, P., Kościński, K., Sorokowska, A., & Huanca, T. (2014). Preference for women’s body mass and waist-to-hip ratio in tsimane’men of the Bolivian amazon: Biological and cultural determinants. PLoS ONE, 9, e105468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorokowski, P., & Sorokowska, A. (2012). Judgments of sexual attractiveness: A study of the yali tribe in papua. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1209–1218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spies, C., Farzaneh-Far, R., Na, B., Kanaya, A., Schiller, N. B., & Whooley, M. A. (2009). Relation of obesity to heart failure hospitalization and cardiovascular events in persons with stable coronary heart disease (from the Heart and Soul Study). American Journal of Cardiology, 104, 883–889. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2009.05.027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinberger, E., Rodriguez-Rigau, L. J., Smith, K. D., & Held, B. (1981). The menstrual cycle and plasma testosterone levels in women with acne. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 4, 54–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(81)70008-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephen, I. D., Coetzee, V., & Perrett, D. I. (2011). Carotenoid and melanin pigment coloration affect perceived human health. Evolution and Human Behavior, 32, 216–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.09.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stephen, I. D., Smith, M. J. L., Stirrat, M. R., & Perrett, D. I. (2009). Facial skin coloration affects perceived health of human faces. International Journal of Primatology, 30, 845–857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-009-9380-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, D. R., Overstreet, J. W., Nakajima, S. T., & Lasley, B. L. (1993). Enhanced ovarian steroid secretion before implantation in early human pregnancy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 76, 1470–1476. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.76.6.8501152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, J. E. (1985). Appearance and punishment—The attraction leniency effect in the courtroom. Journal of Social Psychology, 125, 373–378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Streeter, S. A., & McBurney, D. H. (2003). Waist-hip ratio and attractiveness—New evidence and a critique of “a critical test”. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 88–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugiyama, L. S. (2004a). Illness, injury, and disability among Shiwiar forager-horticulturists: Implications of health-risk buffering for the evolution of human life history. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 123, 371–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugiyama, L. S. (2004b). Is beauty in the context-sensitive adaptations of the beholder? Shiwiar use of waist-to-hip ratio in assessments of female mate value. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 51–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sugiyama, L. S. (2015). Physical attractiveness: An adaptationist perspective. In: The handbook of evolutionary psychology. Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Antonakopoulos, N., Tovée, M. J., & Furnham, A. (2006a). A critical test of the waist-to-hip ratio hypothesis of women’s physical attractiveness in Britain and Greece. Sex Roles, 54, 201–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Caprario, C., Tovee, M. J., & Furnham, A. (2006b). Female physical attractiveness in Britain and Japan: A cross-cultural study. European Journal of Personality, 20, 69–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Furnham, A. (2008). The psychology of physical attraction. Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Gray, M., & Furnham, A. (2007a). The female nude in Rubens: Disconfirmatory evidence of the waist-to-hip ratio hypothesis of female physical attractivenes. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 26, 139–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Jones, J., Einon, D., & Furnham, A. (2009). Men’s preferences for women’s profile waist-to-hip ratio, breast size, and ethnic group in Britain and South Africa. British Journal of Psychology, 100, 313–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Knight, D., Tovee, M. J., Davies, P., & Furnham, A. (2007b). Preferences for female body size in Britain and the South Pacific. Body Image, 4, 219–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., Neto, F., Tovée, M. J., & Furnham, A. (2007c). Preferences for female body weight and shape in three European countries. European Psychologist, 12, 220–228. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040.12.3.220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovée, M. (2007a). Differences in attractiveness preferences between observers in low- and high-resource environments in Thailand. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 5, 149–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovée, M. J. (2005). Female physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia: A cross-cultural study. Body Image, 2, 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2005.02.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovée, M. J. (2006). Does hunger influence judgments of female physical attractiveness? British Journal of Psychology, 97, 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605X80713.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovée, M. J. (2007b). Perceptions of female body weight and shape among indigenous and urban Europeans. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 48, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00526.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swami, V., & Tovée, M. J. (2007c). The relative contribution of profile body shape and weight to judgements of women’s physical attractiveness in Britain and Malaysia. Body Image, 4, 391–396.

    Google Scholar 

  • Symons, D. (1980). The evolution of human sexuality revisited. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3, 171–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tassinary, L. G., & Hansen, K. A. (1998). A critical test of the waist-to-hip-ratio hypothesis of female physical attractiveness. Psychological Science, 9, 150–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J. K., & Tantleff, S. (1992). Female and male ratings of upper torso—Actual, ideal, and stereotypical conceptions. Social Behavior and Personality an International Journal, 7, 345–354.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Gangestad, S. W. (1996). The evolution of human sexuality. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 11, A98–A102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill, R., & Møller, A. P. (1997). Developmental stability, disease and medicine. Biological Reviews, 72, 497–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Todorov, T. (2000). Eloge de l’individu: Essai sur la peinture flamande de la Renaissance. Adam Biro.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tovée, M. J., Furnham, A., & Swami, V. (2007). Healthy body equals beautiful body? changing perceptions of health and attractiveness with shifting socioeconomic status. In V. Swami, A. Furnham (Eds.), The body beautiful (pp. 108–128). UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tovée, M. J., Reinhardt, S., Emery, J. L., & Cornelissen, P. L. (1998). Optimum body-mass index and maximum sexual attractiveness. The Lancet, 352, 548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tovée, M. J., Swami, V., Furnham, A., & Mangalparsad, R. (2006). Changing perceptions of attractiveness as observers are exposed to a different culture. Evolution and Human Behavior, 27, 443–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tybur, J. M., & Gangestad, S. W. (2011). Mate preferences and infectious disease: Theoretical considerations and evidence in humans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 366, 3375–3388.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Hooff, M. H. A., Voorhorst, F. J., Kaptein, M. B. H., Hirasing, R. A., Koppenaal, C., & Schoemaker, J. (2000). Insulin, androgen, and gonadotropin concentrations, body mass index, and waist to hip ratio in the first years after menarche in girls with regular menstrual cycles, irregular menstrual cycles, or oligomenorrhea. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 1394–1400. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.85.4.1394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von der Pahlen, B., Lindman, R., Sarkola, T., Mäkisalo, H., & Eriksson, C. J. P. (2002). An exploratory study on self-evaluated aggression and androgens in women. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 273–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wass, P., Waldenstrom, U., Rossner, S., & Hellberg, D. (1997). An android body fat distribution in females impairs the pregnancy rate of in-vitro fertilization-embryo transfer. Human Reproduction, 12, 2057–2060.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, L. M., & Johnston, L. (2000). Screening job applicants: The impact of physical attractiveness and application quality. The International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 8, 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetsman, A., & Marlowe, F. W. (1999). How universal are preferences for female waist-to-hip ratios? Evidence from the Hadza of Tanzania. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20, 219–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, R. D., Perrett, D. I., & Ozakinci, G. (2012a). Attractive skin coloration: Harnessing sexual selection to improve diet and health. Evolutionary Psychology, 10, 842–854. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491201000507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead, R. D., Re, D., Xiao, D., Ozakinci, G., & Perrett, D. I. (2012b). You are what you eat: Within-subject increases in fruit and vegetable consumption confer beneficial skin-color changes. PLoS ONE, 7, e32988. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0032988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J. M. B., Tripp, D. A., & Boland, F. J. (2005). Fu. Sexualities, Evolution, and Gender, 7, 245–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winkler, C., & Rhodes, G. (2005). Perceptual adaptation affects attractiveness of female bodies. British Journal of Psychology, 96, 141–154. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605X36343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yu, D. W., & Shepard, G. H., Jr. (1998). Is beauty in the eye of the beholder? Nature, 396, 321–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zaadstra, B. M., Seidell, J. C., Van Noord, P. A., te Velde, E. R., Habbema, J. D., Vrieswijk, B., et al. (1993). Fat and female fecundity: Prospective study of effect of body fat distribution on conception rates. BMJ, 306, 484–487.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahavi, A. (1975). Mate selection—A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 53, 205–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zajonc, R. B. (2000). Feeling and thinking: Closing the debate over the independence of affect.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jeanne Bovet .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Bovet, J. (2018). The Evolution of Feminine Beauty. In: Kapoula, Z., Volle, E., Renoult, J., Andreatta, M. (eds) Exploring Transdisciplinarity in Art and Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76054-4_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics