Abstract
Energy-related materials such as coal, coal-bearing wastes, and coal combustion products are traditionally thought of as sources or by-products of electric power generation. Increasingly, these materials are considered resources for their content of rare earth elements (REEs) and other useful constituents. In this chapter, we examine the distribution, modes of occurrence, and relative extractability of REEs from coal-derived materials. We also consider economic factors associated with recovery of REEs from these sources. While several coal-derived sources show promise for REE recovery at the pilot scale, in all cases, REE contents are much below those of primary ores, such that extraction and concentrating the REEs require new and innovative approaches that are largely developmental.
Among coal-related sources, fly ash is the most REE-enriched, as REEs from coal are strongly retained in these refractory solids remaining after coal combustion. Partitioning of coal-derived elements into fly ash has been known for decades but this has yet to be commercially exploited. A key drawback shown in this chapter is that a significant fraction of REEs in fly ash is contained in highly insoluble aluminosilicate glasses that make up the largest portion of this material. In addition to testing chemical or physical pretreatment approaches to help improve the extractability of REEs from fly ash, current research is applying modern analytical approaches to better understand the distribution of REEs on increasingly smaller scales, in the interest of targeting their recovery.
Next-most REE-enriched among coal-related materials are solid waste products of coal mining and wastes from coal preparation, both of which are REE-enriched relative to coal itself. These waste coals concentrate mineralogical constituents that are excluded during mining or removed during coal preparation because they do not contribute to the heating value of coal for power generation. Recovery of REEs from coal waste has shown promise at the pilot scale and has the added benefit of converting a waste into useful constituents.
Total REE contents of commercial coals are, on average, much below the 300 parts per million interest level for REE recovery set by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). However, as reviewed in this chapter, certain horizons within coal beds show preferential REE enrichment and could be targeted by selective mining. Beyond this, certain coals are REE-enriched overall due to their unique geologic histories involving derivation from REE-enriched sediment sources, deposition of volcanic ash during coal formation, or interaction of coal with REE-bearing fluids.
Acidic drainage from abandoned coal mines is produced by the breakdown of pyrite (FeS2), which is unstable in oxygenated conditions. While these acidic fluids have lower REE contents than any of the coal-based solids described above, they are proportionally enriched in certain heavy rare earths, especially yttrium (Y). Precipitates from coal-based acid-mine drainage concentrate REEs to levels that are of interest for recovery, and these are also promising sources for extraction at the pilot scale.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
U.S. Geological Survey, The rare earth elements – vital to modern technologies and lifestyles: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2014–3078 (2014), 4 p. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2014/3078/
B.S. Van Gosen, P.L. Verplanck, R.R. Seal II, K.R. Long, J. Gambogi, Rare earth elements, Chapter O, in Critical Mineral Resources of the United States—Economic and Environmental Geology and Prospects for Future Supply: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1802, ed. by K.J. Schulz, J.H. DeYoung Jr., R.R. Seal II, D.C. Bradley, (2017), pp. O1–O31. https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1802O
S. Dai, R.B. Finkelman, Coal as a promising source of critical elements: progress and future prospects. Int. J. Coal Geol. 186, 155–164 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.06.005
Stanford University, Critical minerals scarcity could threaten renewable energy future, Stanford earth matters magazine (2018). https://earth.stanford.edu/news/critical-minerals-scarcity-could-threaten-renewable-energy-future#gs.hnmriv. Accessed 11/26/21
V. Balaram, Rare earth elements: a review of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis, recycling and environmental impact. Geosci. Front. 10, 1285–1303 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2018.12.005
D.H. Dang, K.A. Thompson, L. Ma, H.Q. Nguyen, S.T. Luu, M.T. Nguyen Duong, A. Kernaghan, Toward the circular economy of rare earth elements: a review of abundance, extraction, applications and environmental impacts. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 81(p), 521–530 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-021-00867-7
T. Fishman, T.E. Graedel, Impact of the establishment of U.S. offshore wind power on neodymium flows. Nat. Sustain. 2, 332–338 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0252-z
C. Xu, Q. Dai, L. Gaines, M. Hu, A. Tukker, B. Steubing, Future material demand for automotive lithium-based batteries. Commun. Mater. 1, 99 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43246-020-00095-x. www.nature.com/commsmat
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral commodity summaries, rare earths (2021). https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-rare-earths.pdf
U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Rare earth elements, 2019 project portfolio (2019), 36 p. https://netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/2019-04/2019-REE-Project-Portfolio.pdf. Accessed 12/6/2021
S.P. Schweinfurth, Coal — a complex natural resource: An overview of factors affecting coal quality and use in the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. Cir. 1143, 39 p (2003). https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1143
S. Dai, A. Bechtel, C.F. Eble, R.M. Flores, D. French, I.T. Graham, M.M. Hood, J.C. Hower, V.A. Korasidis, T.A. Moore, W. Püttmann, Q. Wei, J.M.K. O’Keefe, Recognition of peat depositional environments in coal: a review. Int. J. Coal Geol. 219, 103383 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.103383
V.M. Goldschmidt, Rare elements in coal ashes. Ind. Eng. Chem. 27, 1100–1102 (1935). https://doi.org/10.1021/ie50309a032
U.S. Energy Information Administration, Energy explained: coal data and statistics (2021). https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/data-and-statistics.php. Accessed 11/23/2021
American Coal Ash Association, Beneficial use of coal combustion products – an American recycling success story (2021). https://acaa-usa.org/wp-content/uploads/coal-combustion-products-use/ACAA-Brochure-Web.pdf. Accessed 4/8/22
J.C. Hower, E.J. Granite, D.B. Mayfield, A.S. Lewis, R.B. Finkelman, Notes on contributions to the science of rare earth element enrichment in coal and coal combustion byproducts. Fortschr. Mineral. 6, 32 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3390/min6020032
J.C. Hower, J.G. Groppo, K.R. Henke, U.M. Graham, M.M. Hood, P. Joshi, D.V. Preda, Ponded and landfilled fly ash as a source of rare earth elements from a Kentucky power plant. Coal Combust Gasif Prod 9, 1–21 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4177/CCGP-D-17-00003.1
J.C. Hower, A. Kolker, H. Hsu-Kim, D. Plata, Rare earth elements in coal and coal ash and their potential extraction, in Rare Earth Elements and Their Sustainable Extraction from Secondary Sources, ed. by A. Karamalidis, R. Eggert, (American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph Series, 2023)
International Energy Agency, Key World Energy Statistics (2021). https://www.iea.org/reports/key-world-energy-statistics-2021. Accessed 11/23/2021
J.E. Birdwell, Review of rare earth element concentrations in oil shales of the Eocene Green River Formation: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2012–1016 (2012), 20 p. https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1016/
M.S. Blondes, K.D. Gans, M.A. Engle, Y.K. Kharaka, M.E. Reidy, V. Saraswathula, J.J. Thordsen, E.L. Rowan, E.A. Morrissey, U.S. Geological Survey National Produced Waters Geochemical Database (ver. 2.3, January 2018) (U.S. Geological Survey Data Release, 2018). https://doi.org/10.5066/F7J964W8
W. Zhang, A. Noble, X. Yang, R. Honaker, A comprehensive review of rare earth elements recovery from coal-related materials. Fortschr. Mineral. 10, 451 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/min10050451
N.K. Foley, R.A. Ayuso, Conventional rare earth element mineral deposits—the global landscape, in Rare Earth Metals and Minerals Industries: Status and Prospects, ed. by Y.V. Murty, M.A. Alvin, J.P. Lifton, (Springer Nature, Cham, 2023)
A. Jordens, Y.P. Cheng, K.E. Waters, A review of the beneficiation of rare earth element bearing minerals. Miner. Eng. 41, 97–114 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2012.10.017
S.R. Taylor, S.M. McLennan, The Continental Crust — Its Composition and Evolution (Blackwell Scientific Publishers, Boston, 1985), 312 p
S.R. Taylor, S.M. McLennan, The geochemical evolution of the continental crust. Rev. Geophys. 33, 241–265 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1029/95RG00262
S.M. McLennan, Relationships between the trace element composition of sedimentary rocks and the upper continental crust. Geochem Geophys Geosyst 2, 2000GC000109 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1029/2000GC000109
R.L. Rudnick, S. Gao, The composition of the continental crust, in Treatise on Geochemistry, Vol. 3, The Crust, ed. by H.D. Holland, K.K. Turekian, (Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, 2003), pp. 1–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043751-6/03016-4
F. Zhang, B. Li, X. Zhuang, X. Querol, N. Moreno, Y. Shangguan, J. Zhou, J. Liao, Geological controls on enrichment of rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) in late Permian coals and non-coal rocks in the Xian’an Coalfield, Guangxi Province. Fortschr. Mineral. 11, 301 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030301
M.P. Ketris, Y.E. Yudovich, Estimations of Clarkes for carbonaceous biolithes: world averages for trace element contents in black shales and coals. Int. J. Coal Geol. 78, 135–148 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2009.01.002
R.B. Finkelman, Trace and minor elements in coal, in Organic Geochemistry: Principles and Applications, ed. by M.H. Engel, S.A. Macko, (Springer, 1993), pp. 593–607
S. Dai, I.T. Graham, C.R. Ward, A review of anomalous rare earth elements and yttrium in coal. Int. J. Coal Geol. 159, 82–95 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.04.005
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, in IUPAC Recommendations, 2005, (RSC Publishing, Cambridge, 2005), p. 51
C. Scott, A. Kolker, Rare earth elements in coal and coal fly ash: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2019–3048 (2019), 4 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20193048
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral commodity summaries, scandium (2021). https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-scandium.pdf
A. Noble, Fundamental Perspectives on Economic Analysis of Rare Earth Processing from Various Feedstocks, in Rare Earth Metals and Minerals Industries: Status and Prospects, ed. by Y.V. Murty, M.A. Alvin, J.P. Lifton, (Springer Nature, Cham, 2023)
G.N. Hanson, Rare earth elements in petrogenetic studies of igneous systems. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 8, 371–406 (1980)
V.V. Seredin, S. Dai, Coal deposits as potential alternative sources for lanthanides and yttrium. Int. J. Coal Geol. 94, 67–93 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2011.11.001
A. Kolker, C. Scott, J.C. Hower, J.A. Vazquez, C.L. Lopano, S. Dai, Distribution of rare elements in coal combustion fly ash, determined by SHRIMP-RG ion microprobe. Int. J. Coal Geol. 184, 1–10 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.10.002
A. Kolker, C. Scott, L. Lefticariu, M. Mastalerz, A. Drobniak, A.M. Scott, Trace element partitioning during coal preparation: insights from U.S. Illinois Basin coals. Int. J. Coal Geol. 243, 103781 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2021.103781
G.M. Eskenazy, Rare earth elements and yttrium in lithotypes of Bulgarian coals. Org. Geochem. 11, 83–89 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6380(87)90030-1
G.M. Eskanazy, Aspects of the geochemistry of rare earth elements in coal: an experimental approach. Int. J. Coal Geol. 38, 285–295 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-5162(98)00027-5
J.C. Hower, C.F. Eble, S. Dai, H.E. Belkin, Distribution of rare earth elements in eastern Kentucky coals: indicators of multiple modes of enrichment. Int. J. Coal Geol. 160–161, 73–81 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.04.009
G.M. Eskenazy, Rare earth elements in a sampled coal from the Pirin deposit, Bulgaria. Int. J. Coal Geol. 7, 301–314 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(87)90041-3
R.B. Finkelman, The origin, occurrence, and distribution of the inorganic constituents in low-rank coals, in Proceedings of the Basic Coal Science Workshop. H.H. Schobert, Compiler, (Grand Forks Energy Tech, Center, Grand Forks, ND, 1981), pp. 70–90
R. Lin, T.L. Bank, E.A. Roth, E.J. Granite, Y. Soong, Organic and inorganic associations of rare earth elements in central Appalachian coal. Int. J. Coal Geol. 179, 295–301 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.07.002
D.A. Laudal, S.A. Benson, R.S. Addleman, D. Palo, Leaching behavior of rare earth elements in Fort Union lignite coals of North America. Int. J. Coal Geol. 191, 112–124 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.03.010
R.B. Finkelman, S. Dai, D. French, The importance of minerals in coal as the hosts of chemical elements: a review. Int. J. Coal Geol. 212, 103251 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.103251
S. Dai, J.C. Hower, R.B. Finkelman, I.T. Graham, D. French, C.R. Ward, G. Eskanazy, Q. Wei, L. Zhao, Organic associations of non-mineral elements in coal: a review. Int. J. Coal Geol. 218 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.103347
S. Dai, R.B. Finkelman, D. French, J.C. Hower, I.T. Graham, F. Zhao, Modes of occurrence of elements in coal: a critical evaluation. Earth Sci. Rev. 222 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103815
C.J. Zygarlicke, B.C. Folkedahl, C.M. Nyberg, I.K. Feole, B.A. Kurz, N.L. Theakar, S.A. Benson, J.C. Hower, C.F. Eble, Rare earth elements (REEs) in U.S. coal based resources: sampling, characterization and round-Robin Interlaboratory Study (2019). https://edx.netl.doe.gov/dataset/rare-earth-elements-in-u-s-coal-based-resources,rfp-10982-fe0029007-final-report-RRIS-UND.pdf. Accessed 17 Nov 2021
V.V. Seredin, Rare earth element-bearing coals from the Russian Far East deposits. Int. J. Coal Geol. 30, 101–129 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-5162(95)00039-9
V.V. Seredin, S. Dai, Y. Sun, I.Y. Chekryzhov, Coal deposits as promising sources of rare metals for alternative power and energy-efficient technologies. Appl. Geochem. 31, 1–11 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2013.01.009
M. Mastalerz, A. Drobniak, C. Eble, P. Ames, P. McLaughlin, Rare earth elements and yttrium in Pennsylvanian coals and shales in the eastern part of the Illinois Basin. Int. J. Coal Geol. 231 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2020.103620
R. Lin, Y. Soong, E.J. Granite, REE is U.S. Coal. Evaluation of trace elements in U.S. coals using the USGS COALQUAL database version 3.0. Part I: rare earth elements and yttrium (REY). Int. J. Coal Geol. 192, 1–13 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.04.004
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral commodity summaries, yttrium (2021). https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-yttrium.pdf
N.J. Wagner, A. Matiane, Rare earth elements in select Main Karoo Basin (South Africa) coal and coal ash samples. Int. J. Coal Geol. 196, 82–92 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.06.020
R.S. Blissett, N. Smalley, N.A. Rowson, An investigation into six coal fly ashes from the United Kingdom and Poland to evaluate rare earth element content. Fuel 199, 236–239 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.11.053
W. Franus, M.M. Wiatros-Motyka, M. Wdowin, Coal fly ash as a resource for rare earth elements. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 22, 9464–9474 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4111-9
R.K. Taggart, J.C. Hower, G.S. Dwyer, H. Hsu-Kim, Trends in rare earth element content of U.S.-based coal combustion fly ashes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50(11), 5919–5926 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00085
J.C. Hower, J.G. Groppo, H. Hsu-Kim, R.K. Taggart, Signatures of rare earth element distributions in fly ash derived from the combustion of central Appalachian, Illinois, and Powder River Basin coals. Fuel 301 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121048
J.C. Hower, J.G. Groppo, H. Hsu-Kim, R.K. Taggart, Distribution of rare earth elements in fly ash derived from the combustion of Illinois Basin coals. Fuel 289 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119990
P. Liu, R. Huang, Y. Tang, Comprehensive understandings of rare earth element (REE) speciation in coal fly ashes and implication for REE extractability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 5369–5377 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b00005
N. Couto, A.R. Ferreira, V. Lopes, S.C. Peters, E.P. Mateus, A.B. Ribeiro, S. Pamukcu, Electrodialytic recovery of rare earth elements from coal ashes. Electrochim. Acta 359 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136934
M.Y. Stuckman, C.L. Lopano, E.J. Granite, Distribution and speciation of rare earth elements in coal combustion by-products via synchrotron microscopy and spectroscopy. Int. J. Coal Geol. 195, 125–138 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.06.001
Z. Wang, S. Dai, J. Zou, D. French, I.T. Graham, Rare earth elements and yttrium in coal ash from the Luzhou Power Plant in Sichuan, Southwest China: concentration, characterization and optimized extraction. Int. J. Coal Geol. 203, 1–14 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.01.001
L.B. Clarke, L.L. Sloss, Trace Elements – Emissions from Coal Combustion and Gasification (IEA Coal Research, IEACR/49, 1992), 111 p
J.A. Ratafia-Brown, Overview of trace element partitioning in flames and furnaces of utility coal-fired boilers. Fuel Process. Technol. 39, 139–157 (1994)
J.C. Hower, J.G. Groppo, K.R. Henke, M.M. Hood, C.F. Eble, R.Q. Honaker, W. Zhang, D. Qian, Notes on the potential for the concentration of rare earth elements and yttrium in coal combustion fly ash. Fortschr. Mineral. 5, 356–366 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3390/min5020356
C. Lanzerstorfer, Pre-processing of coal combustion fly ash by classification for enrichment of rare earth elements. Energy Rep. 4, 660–663 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2018.10.010
A. Valian, J.G. Groppo, C.F. Eble, J.C. Hower, R.Q. Honaker, S.F. Greb, Distribution of rare earth elements in the Illinois Basin coals. Min. Metall. Explor. 38, 1645–1663 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-020-00257-y
U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory (2017). https://www.energy.gov/articles/high-concentrations-rare-earth-elements-found-american-coal-basins
J.C. Hower, L.F. Ruppert, C.F. Eble, Lanthanide, yttrium and zirconium anomalies in the Fire Clay coal bed, Eastern Kentucky. Int. J. Coal Geol. 39, 141–153 (1999)
J.C. Hower, D. Berti, M.F. Hochella Jr., S.M. Mardon, Rare earth minerals in a “no tonstein” section of the Dean (Fire Clay) coal, Knox County, Kentucky. Int. J. Coal Geol. 193, 73–86 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.05.001
S.M. Mardon, J.C. Hower, Impact of coal properties on coal combustion by-product quality: examples from a Kentucky Power Plant. Int. J. Coal Geol. 59, 153–169 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2004.01.004
J. Liu, S. Dai, X. He, J.C. Hower, T. Sakulpitakphon, Size-dependent variations in fly ash trace-element chemistry: examples from a Kentucky Power Plant and with emphasis on rare earth elements. Energy Fuel 31, 438–447 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02644
J.C. Hower, C.F. Eble, J.S. Backus, P. Xie, J. Liu, B. Fu, M.M. Hood, Aspects of rare earth element enrichment in Central Appalachian coals. Appl Geochem 120 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2020.104676
J.C. Hower, C.F. Eble, P. Xie, J. Liu, B. Fu, M.M. Hood, Aspects of rare earth element enrichment in Allegheny Plateau coals, Pennsylvania, USA. Appl. Geochem. 136, 105150 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2020.103610
S. Dai, L. Zhao, S. Peng, C.L. Chou, X. Wang, Y. Zhang, D. Li, Y. Sun, Abundances and distribution of minerals and elements in high-alumina coal fly ash from the Jungar Power Plant, Inner Mongolia, China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 81, 320–332 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2009.03.005
S. Dai, Y. Jiang, C.R. Ward, L. Gu, V.V. Seredin, H. Liu, D. Zhou, X. Wang, Y. Sun, J. Zou, D. Ren, Mineralogical and geochemical compositions of the coal in the Guanbanwusu Mine, Inner Mongolia, China: further evidence for the existence of an Al (Ga and REE) ore deposit in the Jungar Coalfield. Int. J. Coal Geol. 98, 10–40 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2012.03.003
A. Deonarine, A. Kolker, M. Doughten, Trace elements in coal ash: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2015–3037 (2015), 6 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20153037
C. Senior, Mercury behavior in coal combustion systems, in Mercury Emissions Control for Coal-Derived Gas Streams, ed. by E. Granite, C. Senior, H. Pennline, (Wiley-VCH, 2014), pp. 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527658787.ch7
C. Senior, E. Granite, W. Linak, W. Seames, Chemistry of trace inorganic elements in coal: a century of discovery. Energy Fuels 34(12), 15141–15168 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c02375
J.C. Hower, T. Sakulpitakphon, A.S. Trimble, G.A. Thomas, W.H. Schram, Major and minor element distribution in fly ash from a coal-fired utility boiler in Kentucky. Energy Sources Part A Recover Util. Environ. Eff. 28(1), 79–95 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/009083190889753
R. Świetlik, M. Trojanowska, M.A. Jóźwiak, Evaluation of the distribution of heavy metals and their chemical forms in ESP-fractions of fly ash. Fuel Process. Technol. 95, 109–118 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2011.11.019
J.C. Hower, C.L. Senior, E.M. Suuberg, R.H. Hurt, J.L. Wilcox, E.S. Olson, Mercury capture by native fly ash carbons in coal-fired power plants. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 36, 510–529 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2009.12.003
M.M. Hood, R.K. Taggart, R.C. Smith, H. Hsu-Kim, K.R. Henke, U.M. Graham, J.G. Groppo, J.M. Unrine, J.C. Hower, Rare earth element distribution in Fly ash derived from the fire clay coal, Kentucky. Coal Combust. Gasif. Prod. 9, 22–33 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4177/CCGP-D-17-00002.1
C.R. Ward, Analysis, origin and significance of mineral matter in coal: an updated review. Int. J. Coal Geol. 165, 1–27 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.07.014
W. Zhang, J.G. Groppo, R.Q. Honaker, Ash beneficiation for REE recovery. World of Coal Ash, 5–7 May 2015, Nashville, TN, Paper 194-Groppo-2015 (2015). http://www.flyash.info/2015/194-Groppo-2015.pdf. Accessed 29 Nov 2021
J. Yang, Y. Zhao, V. Zyryanov, J. Zhang, C. Zheng, Physical-chemical characteristics and elements enrichment of magnetospheres from coal fly ashes. Fuel 135, 15–26 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2014.06.033
S.N. Montross, C.A. Verba, H.L. Chan, C. Lopano, Advanced characterization of rare earth element minerals in coal utilization by-products using multimodal image analysis. Int. J. Coal Geol. 195, 362–372 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.06.018
J.C. Hower, D. Qian, N.J. Briot, E. Santillan-Jimenez, M.M. Hood, R.K. Taggart, H. Hsu-Kim, Nano-scale rare earth distribution in fly ash derived from the combustion of the fire clay coal, Kentucky. Fortschr. Mineral. 9, 10 (2019). https://doi.org/10.3390/min9040206
Y. Hikichi, T. Nomura, Melting temperatures of monazite and xenotime. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 70, C252–C253 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1987.tb04890.x
R.J. Finch, J.M. Hanchar, Structure and chemistry of zircon and zircon group minerals, in Zircon. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, ed. by J.M. Hanchar, P.W.O. Hoskin, vol. 53, (Mineralogical Society of America, 2003), pp. 1–25. https://doi.org/10.2113/0530001
K.A. Farley, He diffusion systematics in minerals: evidence from synthetic monazite and zircon structure phosphates. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 71, 4015–4024 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2007.05.022
D.J. Cherniak, E.B. Watson, Diffusion of helium in natural monazite, and preliminary results on He diffusion in synthetic light rare earth phosphates. Am. Mineral. 98, 1407–1420 (2013)
D.J. Cherniak, E.B. Watson, J.B. Thomas, Diffusion of helium in zircon and apatite. Chem. Geol. 268, 155–166 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2009.08.011
C.A. Palmer, C.L. Oman, A.J. Park, J.A. Luppens, The U.S. geological survey coal quality (COALQUAL) database version 3.0: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 975 (2015), 43 p with appendixes. https://doi.org/10.3133/ds975
S. Dai, D. Li, C.-L. Chou, L. Zhao, Y. Zhang, D. Ren, Y. Ma, Y. Sun, Mineralogy and geochemistry of boehmite-rich coals: new insights from the Haerwusu Surface Mine, Jungar Coalfield, Inner Mongolia, China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 74, 185–202 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2008.01.001
S. Dai, X. Yan, C.R. Ward, J.C. Hower, L. Zhao, X. Wang, L. Zhao, D. Ren, R.B. Finkelman, Valuable elements in Chinese coals: a review. Int. Geol. Rev. 60(5–6), 590–620 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2016.1197802
J.H. Hodgkinson, M. Grigorescu, Strategic elements in the fort Cooper coal measures: potential rare earth elements and other multi-product targets. Aust. J. Earth Sci. 67(3), 305–319 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/08120099.2019.1660712
Q. Huang, D. Talan, J.H. Restrepo, O.J. Restrepo Baena, V. Kecojevic, A. Noble, Characterization study of rare earths, yttrium and scandium from various Colombian coal samples and non-coal lithologies. Int. J. Coal Geol. 209, 14–26 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.04.008
V. Mishra, S. Chakravarty, R.B. Finkelman, A.K. Atul Kumar Varma, Geochemistry of rare earth elements in lower Gondwana coals of the Talchir Coal Basin, India. J. Geochem. Explor. 204, 43–56 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.04.006
F. Anggara, D.H. Amijaya, A. Harijoko, T.N. Tambaria, A.A. Sahri, Z.A. Zain Andrian Nur Asa, Rare earth element and yttrium content of coal in the Banko Coalfield, South Sumatra Basin, Indonesia: contributions from tonstein layers. Int. J. Coal Geol. 196, 159–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.07.006
S.J. Schatzel, B.W. Stewart, Rare earth element sources and modification in the Lower Kittanning coal bed, Pennsylvania: implications for the origin of coal mineral matter and rare earth element exposure in underground mines. Int. J. Coal Geol. 54, 223–251 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-5162(03)00038-7
S.J. Schatzel, B.W. Stewart, A provenance study of mineral matter in coal from Appalachian Basin coal mining regions and implications regarding the respirable health of underground coal workers: a geochemical and Nd isotope investigation. Int. J. Coal Geol. 94, 123–136 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2012.01.011
C. Zhao, B. Liu, L. Xiao, Y. Li, S. Liu, Z. Li, B. Zhao, J. Ma, G. Chu, P. Gao, Y. Sun, Significant enrichment of Ga, Rb, Cs, REEs and Y in the Jurassic No. 6 coal in the Iqe Coalfield, Northern Qaidam Basin, China — a hidden gem. Ore Geol. Rev. 83, 1–13 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.12.012
B. Fu, J.C. Hower, W. Zhang, G. Luo, H. Hu, H. Yao, A review of rare earth elements and yttrium in coal ash: content, modes of occurrence, combustion behavior and extraction methods. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 88, 100954 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2021.100954
K.A. Eriksson, I.H. Campbell, J.M. Palin, C.M. Allen, Predominance of Grenvillian magmatism recorded in detrital zircons from modern Appalachian rivers. J. Geol. 111, 707–717 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1086/378338
K.A. Eriksson, I.H. Campbell, J.M. Palin, C.M. Allen, B. Bock, Evidence for multiple recycling in neoproterozoic through Pennsylvanian sedimentary rocks of the central Appalachian basin. J. Geol. 112, 261–276 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1086/382758
W.A. Thomas, G.E. Gehrels, S.F. Greb, G.C. Nadon, A.M. Satkoski, M.C. Romero, Detrital zircons and sediment dispersal in the Appalachian foreland. Geosphere 13(6), 2206–2230 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1130/GES01525.1
T.A. Johnson, J.D. Vervoort, M.J. Ramsey, S. Southworth, S.R. Mulcahy, Tectonic evolution of the Grenville Orogen in the central Appalachians. Precambrian Res. 346, 105740 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2020.105740
S. Dai, D. Ren, C.-L. Chou, S. Li, Y. Jiang, Mineralogy and geochemistry of the No. 6 coal (Pennsylvanian) in the Junger Coalfield, Ordos Basin, China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 66, 253–270 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2005.08.003
S.I. Arbuzov, A.M. Mezhibor, D.A. Spears, S.S. Ilenok, M.V. Shaldybin, E.V. Belaya, Nature of tonsteins in the Azeisk deposit of the Irkutsk Coal Basin (Siberia, Russia). Int. J. Coal Geol. 153, 99–111 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2015.12.001
S.I. Arbuzov, I.Y. Chekryzhov, R.B. Finkelman, Y.Z. Sun, C.L. Zhao, S.S. Il’enok, M.G. Blokhin, N.V. Zarubina, Comments on the geochemistry of rare earth elements (La, Ce, Sm, Eu, Tb, Yb, Lu) with examples from coals of North Asia (Siberia, Russian far East, North China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan). Int. J. Coal Geol. 206, 106–120 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.10.013
S. Dai, C.R. Ward, I.T. Graham, D. French, J.C. Hower, L. Zhao, X. Wang, Altered volcanic ashes in coal and coal-bearing sequences: a review of their nature and significance. Earth Sci. Rev. 175, 44–74 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.10.005
B.F. Bohor, D.M. Triplehorn, Tonsteins: altered volcanic-ash layers in coal-bearing sequences. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 285, 44 p (1993)
S. Dai, D. Ren, X. Hou, L. Shao, Geochemical and mineralogical anomalies of the late Permian coal in the Zhijin Coalfield of Southwest China and their volcanic origin. Int. J. Coal Geol. 55, 117–138 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-5162(03)00083-1
S. Dai, X. Wang, Y. Zhou, J.C. Hower, D. Li, W. Chen, X. Zhu, J. Zou, Chemical and mineralogical compositions of silicic, mafic and alkali tonsteins in the late Permian coals from the Songzao Coalfield, Chongqing, Southwest China. Chem. Geol. 282, 29–44 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2011.01.006
P.C. Lyons, T.E. Krogh, Y.Y. Kwok, D.W. Davis, W.F. Outerbridge, H.T. Evans Jr., Radiometric ages of the fire clay tonstein [Pennsylvanian (upper carboniferous), Westphalian, Duckmantian]: a comparison of U–Pb zircon single-crystal ages and 40Ar/39Ar sanidine single-crystal plateau ages. Int. J. Coal Geol. 67, 259–266 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2005.12.002
D.A. Spears, The origin of tonsteins, an overview and links with seatearths, fireclays and fragmental clay rocks. Int. J. Coal Geol. 94, 22–31 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2011.09.008
M. Guerra-Sommer, M. Cazzulo-Klepzig, J.O.S. Santos, L.A. Hartmann, J.M. Ketzer, M.L.L. Formoso, Radiometric age determination of tonsteins and stratigraphic constraints for the lower Permian coal succession in Southern Paraná Basin, Brazil. Int. J. Coal Geol. 74, 13–27 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2007.09.005
X. Yang, R.Q. Honaker, Leaching kinetics of rare earth elements from fire clay seam coal. Fortschr. Mineral. 10, 491 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/min10060491
V.V. Seredin, R.B. Finkelman, Metalliferous coals: a review of the main genetic and geochemical types. Int. J. Coal Geol. 76, 253–289 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2008.07.016
S. Dai, D. Ren, C.-L. Chou, R.B. Finkelman, V.V. Seredin, Y. Zhou, Geochemistry of trace elements in Chinese coals: a review of abundances, genetic types, impacts on human health and industrial utilization. Int. J. Coal Geol. 94, 3–21 (2012a). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2011.02.003
S. Dai, I.Y. Chekryzhov, V.V. Seredin, V.P. Nechaev, I.T. Graham, J.C. Hower, C.R. Ward, D. Ren, X. Wang, Metalliferous coal deposits in East Asia (Primorye of Russia and South China): a review of geodynamic controls and styles of mineralization. Gondwana Res. 29, 60–82 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2015.07.001
Q. Wei, S.M. Rimmer, Acid solubility and affinities of trace elements in the high-Ge coals from Wulantuga (Inner Mongolia) and Lincang (Yunnan Province), China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 178, 39–55 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.04.011
S.I. Arbuzov, I.Y. Chekryzhov, D.A. Spears, S.S. Ilenok, B.R. Soktoev, N.Y. Popov, Geology, geochemistry, mineralogy and genesis of the Spetsugli high-germanium coal deposit in the Pavlovsk Coalfield, Russian Far East. Ore Geol. Rev. 139 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2021.104537
B. Jiu, W. Huang, Y. Li, The origin, migration, and accumulation mechanism of germanium and the metallogenic model of coal-hosted Ge ore deposits in Wulantuga, Erlian Basin, China. J. Geochem. Explor. 226 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2021.106779
W. Wang, Y. Qin, S. Sang, Y. Zhu, C. Wang, D.J. Weiss, Geochemistry of rare earth elements in a marine influenced coal and its organic solvent extracts from the Antaibao Mining District, Shanxi, China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 76, 309–317 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2008.08.012
S.N. Montross, J. Yang, J. Britton, M. McKoy, C. Verba, Leaching of rare earth elements from central Appalachian coal seam underclays. Fortschr. Mineral. 10, 577 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/min10060577
W. Zhang, A. Noble, Mineralogy characterization and recovery of rare earth elements from the roof and floor materials of the Guxu Coalfield. Fuel 270 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.117533
J. Yang, S. Montross, J. Britton, M. Stuckman, C. Lopano, C. Verba, Microanalytical approaches to characterizing REE in Appalachian basin underclays. Fortschr. Mineral. 10, 546 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/min10060546
L. Zheng, G. Liu, C.-L. Chou, C. Qi, Y. Zhan, Geochemistry of rare earth elements in Permian coals from the Huaibei Coalfield, China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 31, 167–176 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2007.06.001
X. Yang, J. Werner, R.Q. Honaker, Leaching of rare earth elements from an Illinois Basin coal source. J. Rare Earths 37, 312–321 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jre.2018.07.003
P. Rozelle, A. Khadikar, N. Pulati, N. Soundarrajan, M. Klima, M. Mosser, C. Miller, S. Pisupati, A study on removal of rare earth elements from U.S. coal by-products by ion exchange. Metall. Mater.Trans. E 3, 6–17 (2016). https://link.springer.com/journal/40553
J.A. Luppens, D.C. Scott, J.E. Haacke, L.M. Osmonson, P.E. Pierce, Coal geology and assessment of coal resources and reserves in the Powder River Basin, Wyoming and Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1809 (2015), 218 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1809
P.D. Warwick, C.E. Aubourg, S.E. Suitt, S.M. Podwysocki, A.C. Schultz, Coal resources for part of the Wilcox Group (Paleocene through Eocene), Central Texas, in Geologic Assessment of Coal in the Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain, U.S.A.: AAPG Discovery Series No. 14/AAPG Studies in Geology No. 62, ed. by P.D. Warwick, A.K. Karlsen, M. Merrill, B.J. Valentine, (2011), pp. 192–259
M.D. Mann, N.L. Theaker, B.J. Rew, S.A. Benson, A. Benson, D. Palo, C. Haugen, D. Laudal, Investigation of rare earth element extraction from North Dakota coal-related feedstocks: phase 2 final technical report, U.S. Department of Energy DE-FOA 0001202 (2021), 287 p. https://doi.org/10.2172/1785352
J.A. East, Coal fields of the conterminous United States – National Coal Resource Assessment Updated Version: U.S. Geological Survey, Open-File Report 2012–1205 (2013). https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20121205
L.D. Moxness, E.C. Murphy, N.W. Kruger, Rare earth and other critical element concentrations in the sentinel Butte formation, Tracy Mountain, North Dakota, North Dakota Geological Survey Report of Investigation no. 128 (2021), 65 p
E.C. Murphy, Germanium in North Dakota Lignites. North Dakota Depart. Miner. Resources Newslett. 36(1), 14–15 (2009)
Z. Huang, M. Fan, H. Tian, Rare earth elements of fly ash from Wyoming’s Powder River Basin coal. J. Rare Earths 38, 219–226 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jre.2019.05.004
R.K. Taggart, J.C. Hower, H. Hsu-Kim, Effects of roasting additives and leaching parameters on the extraction of rare earth elements from coal fly ash. Int. J. Coal Geol. 196, 106–114 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.06.021
J.F. King, R.K. Taggart, R.C. Smith, J.C. Hower, H. Hsu-Kim, Aqueous acid and alkaline extraction of rare earth elements from coal combustion ash. Int. J. Coal Geol. 195, 75–83 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.05.009
C.M. Oliveira, C.M. Machado, G.W. Duarte, M. Peterson, Beneficiation of pyrite from coal mining. J. Clean. Prod. 139, 821–827 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.08.124
A. Kolker, Minor element distribution in iron-disulfides in coal: a geochemical review. Int. J. Coal Geol. 94, 32–43 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2011.10.011
A.P. Deditius, S. Utsunomiya, M. Reich, S.E. Kesler, R.C. Ewing, R. Hough, J. Walshe, Trace metal nanoparticles in pyrite. Ore Geol. Rev. 42, 32–46 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2011.03.003
H. Sun, F. Zhao, M. Zhang, J. Li, Behavior of rare earth elements in acid coal mine drainage in Shanxi Province, China. Environ. Earth Sci. 67, 205–213 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-011-1497-7
A.L. Wolfe, B.W. Stewart, R.C. Capo, R. Liu, D.A. Dzombak, G.W. Gordon, A.D. Anbar, Iron isotope investigation of hydrothermal and sedimentary pyrite and their aqueous dissolution products. Chem. Geol. 427, 73–82 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.02.015
X. Li, P. Wu, Geochemical characteristics of dissolved rare earth elements in acid mine drainage from abandoned high-ash coal mining area, southwestern China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 24, 20540–20555 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9670-5
S.M. Fortier, N.T. Nassar, G.W. Lederer, J. Brainard, J. Gambogi, E.A. McCullough, Draft critical mineral list — summary of methodology and background information—U.S. geological survey technical input document in response to secretarial order no. 3359: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2018–1021 (2018), 15 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20181021
N.T. Nassar, S.M. Fortier, Methodology and technical input for the 2021 review and revision of the U.S. critical minerals list: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2021–1045 (2021), 31 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20211045
U.S. Geological Survey, News Release, U.S. geological survey releases 2022 list of critical minerals | U.S. Geological Survey (usgs.gov) (2022). Accessed 7/13/2022
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral commodity summaries, cesium (2021). https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-cesium.pdf
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral commodity summaries, rubidium (2021). https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-rubidium.pdf
C.A. Cravotta III, Dissolved metals and associated constituents in abandoned coal mine discharges, Pennsylvania, USA. Part 1: constituent quantities and correlations. Appl. Geochem. 23, 166–202 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.10.011
F. Zhao, Z. Cong, H. Sun, D. Ren, The geochemistry of rare earth elements (REE) in acid mine drainage from the Sitai Coal Mine, Shanxi Province, North China. Int. J. Coal Geol. 70(1), 184–192 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2006.01.009
B.W. Stewart, R.C. Capo, B.C. Hedin, R.S. Hedin, Rare earth element resources in coalmine drainage and treatment precipitates in the Appalachian basin, USA. Int. J. Coal Geol. 169, 28–39 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2016.11.002
P.K. Sahoo, S. Tripathy, S.M. Equeenuddin, M.K. Panigrahi, Geochemical characteristics of coal mine discharge vis-à-vis behavior of rare earth elements at Jaintia Hills Coalfield, Northeastern India. J. Geochem. Explor. 112, 235–243 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2011.09.001
C.R. Vass, A. Noble, P.F. Ziemkiewicz, The occurrence and concentration of rare earth elements in acid mine drainage and treatment by-products: part 1 — initial survey of the northern Appalachian coal basin. Min. Metall. Explor. 36(5), 903–916 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-019-0097-z
C.R. Vass, A. Noble, P.F. Ziemkiewicz, The occurrence and concentration of rare earth elements in acid mine drainage and treatment by-products. Part 2: regional survey of northern and central Appalachian coal basins. Min. Metall. Explor. 36(5), 917–929 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-019-00112-9
L. Lefticariu, E.R. Walters, C.W. Pugh, K.S. Bender, Sulfate reducing bioreactor dependence on organic substrates for remediation of coal-generated acid mine drainage: field experiments. Appl. Geochem. 63, 70–82 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.08.002
X. Li, R. Zhang, Q. Li, P. Wu, H. Ye, Rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) in coal mine drainage from Southwest China: geochemical distribution and resource evaluation. Sci. Total Environ. 782, 146904 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146904
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), 303(d) list impaired waters NHDPlus indexed dataset with program attributes. May 1, 2015 (2015). Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/waterdata/waters-geospatial-data-downloads
C.A. Cravotta III, K.B. Brady, Priority pollutants and associated constituents in untreated and treated discharges from coal mining or processing facilities in Pennsylvania, USA. Appl. Geochem. 62, 108–130 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.03.001
C.H. Gammons, S.A. Wood, J.P. Jonas, J.P. Madison, Geochemistry of rare earth elements and uranium in the acidic Berkeley Pit Lake, Butte, Montana. Chem. Geol. 198, 269–288 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(03)00034-2
D.K. Nordstrom, D.W. Blowes, C.J. Ptacek, Hydrogeochemistry and microbiology of mine drainage: an update. Appl. Geochem. 57, 3–16 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.02.008
K.A. Hudson-Edwards, H.E. Jamieson, B.G. Lottermoser, Mine wastes: past, present, future. Elements 7(6), 375–380 (2011). https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.7.6.375
A. Lozano, C. Ayora, A. Fernández-Martínez, Sorption of rare earth elements on schwertmannite and their mobility in acid mine drainage treatments. Appl. Geochem. 113, 104499 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2019.104499
D.W. Blowes, C.J. Ptacek, J.L. Jambor, C.G. Weisener, D. Paktunc, W.D. Gould, D.B. Johnson, The geochemistry of acid mine drainage, in Environmental Geochemistry. Treatise on Geochemistry, ed. by B.S. Lollar, H.D. Holland, K.K. Turekian, vol. 11, 2nd edn., (Elsevier-Pergamon, Oxford, 2014), pp. 131–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.00905-0
C.A. Cravotta III, Dissolved metals and associated constituents in abandoned coalmine discharges, Pennsylvania, USA. Part 2: geochemical controls on constituent concentrations. Appl. Geochem. 23, 203–226 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.10.003
R.R. Seal II, J.M. Hammarstrom, A.N. Johnson, N.M. Piatak, G.A. Wandless, Environmental geochemistry of a Kuroko-type massive sulfide deposit at the abandoned Valzinco Mine, Virginia, USA. Appl. Geochem. 23(2), 320–342 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.10.001
C. Ayora, F. Macías, E. Torres, A. Lozano, S. Carrero, J.M. Nieto, R. Pérez-López, A. Fernández-Martínez, H. Castillo-Michel, Recovery of rare earth elements and yttrium from passive-remediation systems of acid mine drainage. Environ. Sci. Technol. 50, 8255–8262 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02084
A. Lozano, C. Ayora, F. Macías, R. León, M.J. Gimeno, L. Auqué, Geochemical behavior of rare earth elements in acid drainages: modeling achievements and limitations. J. Geochem. Explor. 216, 106577 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2020.106577
S.A. Wood, W.M. Shannon, L. Baker, The aqueous geochemistry of the rare earth elements and yttrium. Part 13: REE geochemistry of mine drainage from the Pine Creek Area, Coeur d’Alene River valley, Idaho, USA, in Rare Earth Elements in Groundwater Flow Systems, (Springer, Dordrecht, 2005), pp. 89–110
R.D. Taylor, A.K. Shah, G.J. Walsh, C.D. Taylor, Geochemistry and geophysics of iron oxide-apatite deposits and associated waste piles with implications for potential rare earth element resources from ore and historical mine waste in the Eastern Adirondack Highlands, New York, USA. Econ. Geol. 114, 1569–1598 (2019). https://doi.org/10.5382/econgeo.4689
P.T. Behum, Y.P. Chugh, L. Lefticariu, Management of coal processing wastes: studies on an alternate technology for control of sulfate and chloride discharge. Int. J. Coal Sci. Technol. 5(1), 54–63 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40789-017-0185-y
W. Zhang, R.Q. Honaker, Rare earth elements recovery using staged precipitation from a leachate generated from coarse coal refuse. Int. J. Coal Geol. 195, 189–199 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2018.06.008
S.F. Greb, W.J. Nelson, S.D. Elrick, Mining geology of the principal resource coals of the Illinois Basin. Int. J. Coal Geol., 103589 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2020.103589
P. Acero, J. Cama, C. Ayora, Sphalerite dissolution kinetics in acidic environment. Appl. Geochem. 22(9), 1872–1883 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2007.03.051
J. Liu, D.M. Aruguete, J.R. Jinschek, J.D. Rimstidt, M.F. Hochella Jr., The non-oxidative dissolution of galena nanocrystals: insights into mineral dissolution rates as a function of grain size, shape and aggregation state. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72(24), 5984–5996 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.010
J.D. Rimstidt, D.J. Vaughan, Pyrite oxidation: a state-of-the-art assessment of the reaction mechanism. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67(5), 873–880 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(02)01165-1
L. Lefticariu, L.M. Pratt, E.M. Ripley, Mineralogic and sulfur isotopic effects accompanying oxidation of pyrite in millimolar solutions of hydrogen peroxide at temperatures from 4 to 150°C. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70(19), 4889–4905 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2006.07.026
D.K. Nordstrom, Effects of microbiological and geochemical interactions in mine drainage, in Environmental Aspects of Mine Wastes, Short Course Series, ed. by J.L. Jambor, D.W. Blowes, A.I.M. Ritchie, vol. 31, (Mineralogical Association of Canada, Ottawa, 2003), pp. 227–238
J.P. Jolivet, C. Chanéac, E. Tronc, Iron oxide chemistry. From molecular clusters to extended solid networks. Chem. Commun. 5, 481–483 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1039/B304532N
J. Majzlan, S.C.B. Myneni, Speciation of iron and sulfate in acid waters: aqueous clusters to mineral precipitates. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39(1), 188–194 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1021/es049664p
J.M. Bigham, D.K. Nordstrom, Iron and aluminum hydroxysulfates from acid sulfate waters. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 40, 351–403 (2000). https://doi.org/10.2138/rmg.2000.40.7
D.B. Johnson, T. Kanao, S. Hedrich, Redox transformations of iron at extremely low pH: fundamental and applied aspects. Front. Microbiol. 3, 96 (2012). https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2012.00096
M.A. Caraballo, J.D. Rimstidt, F. Macías, J.M. Nieto, M.F. Hochella, Metastability, nanocrystallinity and pseudo-solid solution constraints to schwertmannite solubility. Chem. Geol. 360/361, 22–31 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.09.023
R. Fan, G. Qian, Y. Li, M.D. Short, R.C. Schumann, M. Chen, R.S.C. Smart, A.R. Gerson, Evolution of pyrite oxidation from a 10-year kinetic leach study: implications for secondary mineralization in acid mine drainage control. Chem. Geol., 120653 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120653
P. Ziemkiewicz, T. He, A. Noble, X. Liu, Recovery of rare earth elements (REEs) from coal mine drainage, in West Virginia Mine Drainage Task Force Symposium, (Morgantown, WV, USA, 2016)
L. Lefticariu, K.L. Klitzing, A. Kolker, Rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) in coal mine drainage from the Illinois Basin, USA. Int. J. Coal Geol. 217, 103327 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.103327
A. Biswas, M.J. Hendry, J. Essilfie-Dughan, S. Day, S.A. Villeneuve, S.L. Barbour, Geochemistry of zinc and cadmium in coal waste rock, Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Appl. Geochem., 105148 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2021.105148
J. Essilfie-Dughan, M.J. Hendry, J.J. Dynes, Y. Hu, A. Biswas, S.L. Barbour, S. Day, Geochemical and mineralogical characterization of sulfur and iron in coal waste rock, Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Sci. Total Environ. 586, 753–769 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.053
J.A. Galhardi, D. Bonotto, Hydrogeochemical features of surface water and groundwater contaminated with acid mine drainage (AMD) in coal mining areas: a case study in southern Brazil. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 23, 18911–18189 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7077-3
M. Shahhosseini, F.D. Ardejani, B. Ernest, Geochemistry of rare earth elements in a neutral mine drainage environment, Anjir Tangeh, Northern Iran. Int. J. Coal Geol. 183, 120–135 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2017.10.004
C.W. Noack, D.A. Dzombak, A.K. Karamalidis, Rare earth element distributions and trends in natural waters with a focus on groundwater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 4317–4326 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1021/es4053895
A.E. Williams-Jones, A.A. Migdisov, I.M. Samson, Hydrothermal mobilization of the rare earth elements: a tale of “ceria” and “yttria”. Elements 8, 355–360 (2012). https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.8.5.355
Z.M. Migaszewski, A. Gałuszka, The characteristics, occurrence and geochemical behavior of rare earth elements in the environment: a review. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45(5), 429–471 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2013.866622
W. Zhang, R. Honaker, Process development for the recovery of rare earth elements and critical metals from an acid mine leachate. Miner. Eng. 153, 106382 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2020.106382
B.C. Hedin, R.S. Hedin, R.C. Capo, B.W. Stewart, Critical metal recovery potential of Appalachian acid mine drainage treatment solids. Int. J. Coal Geol. 231, 103610 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2020.103610
A. Royer-Lavallee, C.M. Neculita, L. Coudert, Removal and potential recovery of rare earth elements from mine water. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 89, 47–57 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2020.06.010
R. León, F. Macías, C.R. Cánovas, R. Pérez-López, C. Ayora, J.M. Nieto, M. Olías, Mine waters as a secondary source of rare earth elements worldwide: the case of the Iberian Pyrite Belt. J. Geochem. Explor. 224, 106742 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2021.106742
B.C. Hedin, R.C. Capo, B.W. Stewart, R.S. Hedin, C.L. Lopano, M.Y. Stuckman, The evaluation of critical rare earth element (REE) enriched treatment solids from coalmine drainage passive treatment systems. Int. J. Coal Geol. 208, 54–64 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coal.2019.04.007
L. Lefticariu, S.R. Sutton, K.S. Bender, M. Lefticariu, M. Pentrak, J.W. Stucki, Impacts of detrital nano-and micro-scale particles (dNP) on contaminant dynamics in a coal mine AMD treatment system. Sci. Total Environ. 575, 941–955 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.154
M. Micari, A. Cipollina, A. Tamburini, M. Moser, V. Bertsch, G. Micale, Techno-economic analysis of integrated processes for the treatment and valorisation of neutral coal mine effluents. J. Clean. Prod. 270, 122472 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122472
A.M. Jones, R.N. Collins, T.D. Waite, Mineral species control of aluminum solubility in sulfate-rich acidic waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 75, 965–977 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2010.12.001
D.G. Brookins, Aqueous geochemistry of rare earth elements. Rev. Mineral. Geochem. 21(1), 201–225 (1989). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501509032-011
S.A. Wood, The aqueous geochemistry of the rare earth elements and yttrium. 1. Review of available low-temperature data for inorganic complexes and the inorganic REE speciation of natural waters. Chem. Geol. 82, 159–186 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1016/0009-2541(90)90080-Q
E.N. Rizkalla, G.R. Choppin, Lanthanides and actinides hydration and hydrolysis, in Handbook on the Physics and Chemistry of Rare Earths. Lanthanides/Actinides: Chemistry, ed. by K.A. Gschneider, L. Eyring, G.R. Choppin, G.H. Lander, vol. 18, (Elsevier Science B.V., Amsterdam, 1994). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1273(05)80050-9
Y. Takahashi, H. Yoshida, N. Sato, K. Hama, Y. Yusa, H. Shimizu, W- and M-type tetrad effects in REE patterns for water-rock systems in the tono uranium deposit, Central Japan. Chem. Geol. 184, 311–335 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(01)00388-6
M.I. Leybourne, K.H. Johannesson, Rare earth elements (REE) and yttrium in stream waters, stream sediments and Fe-Mn oxyhydroxides: fractionation, speciation and controls over REE + Y patterns in the surface environment. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 5962–5983 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.09.022
A. Thompson, M.K. Amistadi, O.A. Chadwick, J. Chorover, Fractionation of yttrium and holmium during basaltic soil weathering. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 119, 18–30 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2013.06.003
J. Schijf, R.H. Byrne, Speciation of yttrium and the rare earth elements in seawater: review of a 20-year analytical journey. Chem. Geol. 584, 120479 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120479
M. Bau, Scavenging of dissolved yttrium and rare earths by precipitating iron oxyhydroxide: experimental evidence for Ce oxidation, Y–Ho fractionation and lanthanide tetrad effect. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 63, 67–77 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00014-9
I.L. Wallrich, B.W. Stewart, R.C. Capo, B.C. Hedin, T.T. Phan, Neodymium isotopes track sources of rare earth elements in acidic mine waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 269, 465–483 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2019.10.044
K.H. Johannesson, W.B. Lyons, M.A. Yelken, H.E. Gaudette, K.J. Stetzenbach, Geochemistry of the rare earth elements in hypersaline and dilute acidic natural terrestrial waters: complexation behavior and middle rare earth element enrichments. Chem. Geol. 133(1–4), 125–144 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(96)00072-1
E.R. Sholkovitz, T.M. Church, R. Arimoto, Rare earth element composition of precipitation, precipitation particles and aerosols. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 98(D11), 20587–20599 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1029/93JD01926
M. Iwashita, A. Saito, M. Arai, Y. Furusho, T. Shimamura, Determination of rare earth elements in rainwater collected in suburban Tokyo. Geochem. J. 45(3), 187–197 (2011). https://doi.org/10.2343/geochemj.1.0121
O. Eterigho-Ikelegbe, H. Harrar, S. Bada, Rare earth elements from coal and coal discard – a review. Miner. Eng. 173, 107187 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2021.107187
A. Lozano, C. Ayora, A. Fernandez-Martinez, Sorption of rare earth elements onto Basaluminite: the role of sulfate and pH. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 258, 50–62 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2019.05.016
P.L. Verplanck, D.K. Nordstrom, H.E. Taylor, B.A. Kimball, Rare earth element partitioning between hydrous ferric oxides and acid mine water during iron oxidation. Appl. Geochem. 19, 1339–1354 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2004.01.016
C.H. Gammons, S.A. Wood, D.A. Nimick, Diel behavior of rare earth elements in a mountain stream with acidic to neutral pH. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 69(15), 3747–3758 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2005.03.019
S.A. Wood, C.H. Gammons, S.R. Parker, The behavior of rare earth elements in naturally and anthropogenically acidified waters. J. Alloys Compd. 418(1–2), 161–165 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2005.07.082
M.L.B. Moraes, A. Murciego, E. Lvarez-Ayuso, A.C.Q. Ladeira, The role of Al13-polymers in the recovery of rare earth elements from acid mine drainage through pH neutralization. Appl. Geochem. 113, 104466 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2019.104466
S.A. Welch, A.G. Christy, L. Isaacson, D. Kirste, Mineralogical control of rare earth elements in acid sulfate soils. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 73, 44–64 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.017
R. Pérez-López, J. Delgado, J.M. Nieto, B. Márquez-García, Rare earth element geochemistry of sulphide weathering in the São Domingos Mine Area (Iberian Pyrite Belt): a proxy for fluid-rock interaction and ancient mining pollution. Chem. Geol. 276, 29–40 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2010.05.018
A. Grawunder, D. Merten, G. Büchel, Origin of middle rare earth element enrichment in acid mine drainage-impacted areas. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 21, 6812–6823 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2107-x
E.R. Sholkovitz, The aquatic chemistry of rare earth elements in rivers and estuaries. Aquat. Geochem. 1(1), 1–34 (1995). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01025229
R.E. Hannigan, E.R. Sholkovitz, The development of middle rare earth element enrichments in freshwaters: weathering of phosphate minerals. Chem. Geol. 175(3–4), 495–508 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0009-2541(00)00355-7
E. Da Silva, E. Ferreira, I. Bobos, J. Matos, C. Patinha, A.P. Reis, E.C. Fonseca, Mineralogy and geochemistry of trace metals and REE in massive volcanic sulphide host rocks, stream sediments, stream waters and acid mine drainage from the Lousal Mine Area (Iberian Pyrite Belt, Portugal). Appl. Geochem. 24, 383–401 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2008.12.001
K.A. Quinn, R.H. Byrne, J. Schijf, Sorption of yttrium and rare earth elements by amorphous ferric hydroxide: influence of pH and ionic strength. Mar. Chem. 99, 128–150 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2005.05.011
D.B. Johnson, K.B. Hallberg, Acid mine drainage remediation options: a review. Sci. Total Environ. 338, 3–14 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.09.002
J.G. Skousen, C.E. Zipper, A. Rose, P.F. Ziemkiewicz, R.W. Nairn, L.M. McDonald, R.L. Kleinmann, Review of passive systems for acid mine drainage treatment. Mine Water Environ. 36, 133–153 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-016-0417-1
P.T. Behum, L. Lefticariu, K.S. Bender, Y.T. Segid, A.S. Burns, C.W. Pugh, Remediation of coal-mine drainage by a sulfate-reducing bioreactor: a case study from the Illinois Coal Basin, USA. Appl. Geochem. 26, S162–S166 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2011.03.093
P.L. Younger, S.A. Banwart, R.S. Hedin, Mine Water – Hydrology, Pollution, Remediation (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 2002)
J.G. Skousen, A. Sexstone, P.F. Ziemkiewicz, Acid mine drainage control and treatment, in Reclamation of Drastically Disturbed Lands, ed. by R.I. Barnhisel, R.G. Darmody, W.L. Daniels, (American Society of Agronomy Monograph 41, Madison, 2000), pp. 131–168. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr41.c6
J. Weijma, C. Copini, C. Buisman, C. Schultz, Biological recovery of metals, sulfur and water in the mining and metallurgical industry, in Water Recycling and Recovery in Industry, ed. by P.N.L. Lens, L.W. Hulshoff Pol, P. Wilderer, T. Asano, (IWA Publishing, London, 2002)
R. Hedin, T. Weaver, N. Wolfe, K. Weaver, Passive treatment of acidic coal mine drainage: the Anna’s mine passive treatment complex. Mine Water Environ. 29(3), 165–175 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-010-0117-1
Hedin Environmental, Optimizing the design and operation of self-flushing limestone systems for mine drainage treatment (2008). Retrieved from: http://files.dep.state.pa.us/Mining/Abandoned%20Mine%20Reclamation/AbandonedMinePortalFiles/InnovativeTechnologyGrantFinalReports/Flushing.pdf
B. Erickson, Rare earth recovery. Chem. Eng. News 96(28), 28–33 (2018). https://asset-pdf.scinapse.io/prod/2871462933/2871462933.pdf
S.R. Sutton, A. Lanzirotti, M. Newville, M.L. Rivers, P. Eng, L. Lefticariu, Spatially resolved elemental analysis, spectroscopy and diffraction at the GSECARS sector at the advanced photon source. J. Environ. Qual. 46(6), 1158–1165 (2017). https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2016.10.0401
J.M. Bigham, U. Schwertmann, S.J. Traina, R.L. Winland, M. Wolf, Schwertmannite and the chemical modeling of iron in acid sulfate waters. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 60, 2111–2121 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(96)00091-9
U. Schwertmann, L. Carlson, The pH-dependent transformation of schwertmannite to goethite at 25°C. Clay Mineral. 40, 63–66 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1180/0009855054010155
J.P. Jolivet, C. Chanéac, D. Chiche, S. Cassaignon, O. Durupthy, J. Hernandez, Basic concepts of the crystallization from aqueous solutions: the example of aluminum oxy(hydroxi)des and aluminosilicates. Compt. Rendus Geosci. 343, 113–122 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2010.12.006
A.E. Van Driessche, T.M. Stawski, L.G. Benning, M. Kellermeier, Chapter 12: Calcium sulfate precipitation throughout its phase diagram, in New Perspectives on Mineral Nucleation and Growth, (Springer, 2017), pp. 227–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45669-0_12
H. Tan, G. Zhang, P.J. Heaney, S.M. Webb, W.D. Burgos, Characterization of manganese oxide precipitates from Appalachian coal mine drainage treatment systems. Appl. Geochem. 25(3), 389–399 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2009.12.006
F. Luan, C.M. Santelli, C.M. Hansel, W.D. Burgos, Defining manganese(II) removal processes in passive coal mine drainage treatment systems through laboratory incubation experiments. Appl. Geochem. 27(8), 1567–1578 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeochem.2012.03.010
J. Sánchez-España, I. Yusta, W.D. Burgos, Geochemistry of dissolved aluminum at low pH: hydrobasaluminite formation and interaction with trace metals, silica and microbial cells under anoxic conditions. Chem. Geol. 441, 124–137 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.08.004
U.S. Department of Energy (U.S. DOE), Critical materials strategy. Darby, Pennsylvania, U.S. Department of Energy report, DOE/PI-0009 (2011), 190 p. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/DOE_CMS2011_FINAL_Full.pdf
G.H. Luttrell, M.J. Kiser, R.-H. Yoon, A. Noble, M. Rezaee, A. Bhagavatula, R.Q. Honaker, Field Survey of rare earth element concentrations in process streams produced by coal preparation plants in the eastern USA. Min. Metall. Explor. 36, 889–902 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42461-019-00124-5
S. Das, G. Gaustad, A. Sekar, E. Williams, Techno-economic analysis of supercritical extraction of rare earth elements from coal ash. J. Clean. Prod. 189, 539–551 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.252
M. Summers, The path to commercialization through techno-economics: presentation. U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory Project Review Meeting for Rare Earth Elements (REE) Program, April 10 (2018). https://netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/20180410_1030C_Presentation_Summers_NETL.pdf
W. Sutterlin, Recovery of rare earth elements from coal mining waste materials: presentation. U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory Project Review Meeting for Rare Earth Elements (REE) Program, April 10 (2018). https://netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/20180410_0900C_Presentation_FE0030146_InventureRenewables.pdf
Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Towards the circular economy 3 — accelerating the scale-up across global supply chains. Cowes, Isle of Wight, United Kingdom, Ellen MacArthur Foundation report, January (2014), 76 p. https://ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/towards-the-circular-economy-vol-3-accelerating-the-scale-up-across-global
É. Lèbre, G. Corder, A. Golev, The role of the mining industry in a circular economy: a framework for resource management at the mine site level. J. Ind. Ecol. 21(3), 662–672 (2017)
B. Folkedahl, Economic extraction and recovery of REEs and production of clean value-added products from low-rank coal fly ash. Poster, U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory Project Review Meeting for Rare Earth Elements (REE) Program, April 10 (2018). https://netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/netl-file/2018_Poster-04_FE0031490_UNDEERC.pdf
R.Q. Honaker, W. Zhang, J. Werner, A. Noble, G.H. Luttrell, R.H. Yoon, Enhancement of a process flowsheet for recovering and concentrating critical materials from bituminous coal sources. Min. Metall. Explor. 37(1), 3–20 (2020)
B.V. Hassas, M. Rezaee, S.V. Pisupati, Precipitation of rare earth elements from acid mine drainage by CO2 mineralization process. Chem. Eng. J. 399 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.125716
R.Q. Honaker, W. Zhang, X. Yang, M. Rezaee, Conception of an integrated flowsheet for rare earth elements recovery from coal coarse refuse. Miner. Eng. 122, 233–240 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2018.04.005
W. Zhang, R.Q. Honaker, Calcination pretreatment effects on acid leaching characteristics of rare earth elements from middlings and coarse refuse material associated with a bituminous coal source. Fuel 249, 130–145 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.03.063
P.K. Sarswat, Z. Zhang, M.L. Free, Rare earth elements extraction from coal waste using a biooxidation approach, in Rare Metal Technology, ed. by G. Azimi, T. Ouchi, K. Forsberg, H. Kim, S. Alam, A. Abdullahi Baba, N.R. Neelameggah, (Springer, 2021), pp. 210–216. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-030-65489-4
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), Section 404 of the Clean Water Act—Clean Water Act, Section 402: National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (2021). https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/clean-water-act-section-402-national-pollutant-discharge-elimination-system
Internal Revenue Service, 26 CFR Part 1 [TD9944] RIN 1545–BP42 credit for carbon oxide sequestration. Fed. Regist. 86(10), 4728–4773 (2021)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2024 This is a U.S. government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kolker, A., Lefticariu, L., Anderson, S.T. (2024). Energy-Related Rare Earth Element Sources. In: Murty, Y.V., Alvin, M.A., Lifton, J. (eds) Rare Earth Metals and Minerals Industries. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31867-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31867-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-31866-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-31867-2
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)