Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Obesity

A Challenging Global Epidemic

  • Chapter
Early Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders

Part of the book series: Contemporary Endocrinology ((COE))

  • 151 Accesses

Abstract

Obesity can be defined as a condition of abnormal or excessive adiposity (>25% of total body weight for men and >30% for women); it results from a chronic imbalance between energy intake and energy expenditure. Although there is some disagreement about its classification as a disease (1–3), there is a consensus regarding the worldwide increase in the prevalence of obesity and obesity-related diseases. A recently convened consultation by the World Health Organization (WHO) concluded that obesity is a rapidly growing global epidemic that is replacing the more traditional public health concerns such as undernutrition and infectious diseases as the most significant contributor to ill health (4).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Downey M. Obesity as a disease entity. Am Heart J 2001;142:1091–1094.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Heshka S, Allison DB. Is obesity a disease? Int J Obes 2001;25:1401–1404.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Kopelman PG, Finer N. Reply: Is obesity a disease? Int J. Obes 2001;25:1405–1406.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic. Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity, Geneva, 3–5 June, 1997. World Health Organization, Geneva, 1998, WHO/NUT/NCD/98.1.

    Google Scholar 

  5. World Health Organization/International Association for the Study of Obesity/International Obesity Taskforce. The Asia-Pacific perspective: redefining obesity and its treatment. Available at: http://www.idi.org.au/obesityreport.htm.

  6. National Institutes of Health. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: the evidence report. NIH, NHLBI, June, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bray GA, Bouchard C, James WPT, eds. Handbook on Obesity. Marcel Dekker, New York, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Bray GA, Greenway FL. Current and potential drugs for treatment of obesity. Endocr Rev 1999;20:805–875.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Bjorntop P, Lockwood DH, Heffner TG eds. Obesity: pathology and therapy. Springer Verlag, New York, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bjorntorp P, ed. International Textbook of Obesity. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Clapham JC, Arch JRS, Tadayyon M. Anti-obesity drugs: a critical review of current therapies and future opportunities. Pharmacol Therap 2001;89:81–121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Visscher TLS, Seidell JC. The public health impact of obesity. Annu Rev Public Health 2001;22:355–375.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Gallagher D, Visser M, Sepulveda D, Pierson RN, Harris T, Heymsfield SB. How useful is body mass index for comparison of body fatness across age, sex, and ethnic groups? Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:228–229.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Deurenberg P, Yap M, van Staveren WA. Body mass index and percent body fat: a meta analysis among different ethnic groups. Int J Obes 1998;22:1164–1171.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Lundgren H, Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Lapidus L, Sjostrom L. Adiposity and adipose tissue distribution in relation to incidence of diabetes in women: results from a prospective population study in Gothenburg, Sweden. Int J Obes 1989;13:413–423.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Cassano P, Rosner B, Vokonas P, Weiss S. Obesity and body fat distribution in relation to the incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136:1474–1486.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Filipovsky J, Ducimetiere P, Darne B, Richard J. Abdominal body mass distribution and elevated blood pressure are associated with increased risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer in middle-aged men. The results of a 15- to 20-year follow-up in the Paris prospective study. Int J Obes 1993;17:197–203.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Chan JM, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willet WC. Obesity, fat distribution and weight gain as risk factors for clinical diabetes in men. Diabetes Care 1994;17:961–969.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Bjorntorp P. Body fat distribution, insulin resistance and metabolic diseases. Nutrition 1997;13:795–803.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Carey VJ, Walters EE, Colditz GA, et al. Body fat distribution and risk of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in women. The Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:614–619.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Kissebah A. Central obesity: measurement and metabolic effects. Diabetes Rev 1997;5:8–20.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Reeder B A, Senthilselvan A, Despres J-P, et al. The association of cardiovascular risk factors with abdominal obesity in Canada. Can Med Assoc J 1997;157:S39-S45.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Rexrode KM, Carey VJ, Hennekens CH, et al. Abdominal adiposity and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA 1998;280:1843–1848.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Ho SC, Chen YM, Woo JLF, Leung SSF, Lam TH, Janus ED. Association between simple anthropometric indices and cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Obes 2001;25:1689–1697.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Takami R, Takeda N, Hayashi M, et al. Body fatness and fat distribution as predictors of metabolic abnormalities and early carotid atherosclerosis. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1248–1252.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Henandez-Ono A, Monter-Carreola G, Zamora-Gonzalez J, et al. Association of visceral fat with coronary risk factors in a population-based sample of postmenopausal women. Int J Obes 2002;26:33–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Bujalska IJ, Kumar S, Stewart PM. Does central obesity reflect ’Cushing’s disease of the omentum’? Lancet 1997;349:1210–1213.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Bjorntorp P. Neuroendocrine perturbations as a cause of insulin resistance. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 1999;15:427–441.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Busetto L. Visceral obesity and the metabolic syndrome: effects of weight loss. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2001; 11:195–204.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Dessi-Fulgheri P, Sarzani R, Rappelli A. The natriuretic peptide system in obesity-related hypertension: new pathophysiological aspects. J Nephrol 1998; 11:296–299.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Redon J. Hypertension in obesity. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2001;11:344–353.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Rocchini AP. Obesity hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2002;15:50S-52S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. WHO: Controlling the global obesity epidemic. Available at http://www.who.int/nut/obs.htm.

  34. van der Sande MAB, Ceesay SM, Milligan PJM, et al. Obesity and undernutrition and cardiovascular risk in rural and urban Gambian communities. Am J Public Health 2001;91:1641–1644.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Tremblay MS, Katzmarzyk PT, Willms JD. Temporal trends in overweight and obesity in Canada, 1981–1996. Int J Obes 2002;26:538–543.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Mokdad AH, Bowman BA, Ford ES, Vinicor F, Marks JS, Koplan JP. The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. JAMA 2001;286:1195–1200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Popkin BM. The nutrition transition and obesity in the developing world. J Nutr 2001; 131:871S-873S.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Uauy R, Albala C, Kain J. Obesity trends in Latin America: transiting from under-to overweight. J Nutr 2001; 131:893S-899S.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Bundred P, Kitchiner D, Buchan I. Prevalence of overweight and obese children between 1989 and 1998: population based series of cross sectional studies. BMJ 2001; 322:1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Chinn S, Rona RJ. Prevalence and trends in overweight and obesity in three cross sectional studies of British children. BMJ 2001;322:24–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Chu N-F. Prevalence and trends of obesity among school children in Taiwan—the Taipei Children Heart Study. Int J Obes 2001;25:170–176.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Park MK, Menard SW and Schoolfield J. Prevalence of overweight in a triethnic pediatric population of San Antonio, Texas. Int J Obes 2001;25:409–416.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Sakamoto N, Wansorn, S, Tontisirin K, Marui E. A social epidemiologic study of obesity among preschool children in Thailand. Int J Obes 2001;25:389–394.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Tyrell VJ, Richards GE, Hofman P, Gillies GF, Robinson E, Cutfield WS. Obesity in Auckland school children: a comparison of the body mass index and percentage body fat as the diagnostic criterion. Int J Obes 2001;25:164–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Wang Y. Cross-national comparison of childhood obesity: the epidemic and the relationship between obesity and socioeconomic status. Int J Epidemiol 2001;30:1129–1136.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH. Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ 2000;320:1240–1243.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Deurenberg P. Universal cut-off BMI points for obesity are not appropriate. Br J Nutr 2001;85:135–136.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Luo J, Hu FB. Time trends of obesity in pre-school children in China from 1989 to 1997. Int J Obes 2002;26:553–558.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. De Onis M, Blossner M. Prevalence and trends of overweight among pre-school children in developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1032–1039.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Visscher TLS, Seidell JC, Molarius A, van der Kuip, Hofman A, Witteman JCM. A comparison of body mass index, waist-hip ratio and waist circumference as predictors of all-cause mortality among the elderly: the Rotterdam study. Int J Obes 2001;25:1730–1735.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Stevens J, Cai J, Pamuk ER, Williamson DF, Thin MJ, Wood JL. The effect of age on the association between body-mass index and mortality. N Engl J Med 1998;338:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Calle EE, Thun MJ, Petreli JM, Rodrigues C, Heath CW. Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of US adults. N Engl J Med 1999;341:1097–1105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, Van Itallie TB. Annual death attributable to obesity in the United States. JAMA 1999;282:1530–1538.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Must A, Spadano J, Coakley EH, Field AE, Colditz G, Dietz WH. The disease burden associated with overweight and obesity. JAMA 1999;282:1523–1529.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Doll S, Paccaud F, Bovet P, Burnier M and Wietlisbach V.Body mass index, abdominal adiposity and blood pressure: consistency of their association across developing and developed countries. Int J Obes 2002;26:48–57.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Juhaeri Stevens J, Chambless LE, et al. Associations between weight gain and incident hypertension in a bi-ethnic cohort: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Int J Obes 2002;26:58–64.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Despres JP. Lipoprotein metabolism in visceral obesity. Int J Obes 1991; 15(suppl 2):45–52.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Khaidhiar L, Blackburn GL. Obesity assessment. Am Heart J 2001;142:1095–1101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Adult Treatment Panel III. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. JAMA 2001;285:2486–2497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Eckel RH, Krauss RM. American Heart Association call to action: obesity as a major risk factor for coronary heart disease. Circulation 1998;97:2099–2100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Deurenberg-Yap M, Chew Sk, Lin VFP, Tan BY, van Staveren WA, Duerenberg P. Relationships between indices of obesity and its comorbidities in multi-ethnic Singapore. Int J Obes 2001;25:1554–1562.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Anderson JW, Konz EC. Obesity and disease management. Obes Res 2001;9 (Suppl 4):326S-334S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Shaper AG, Wannamethee SG, Walker M. Body weight: implications for the prevention of coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes melllitus in a cohort of middle aged men. BMJ 1997;314:1311–1317.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Jousilahti P, Tuomilehto J, Vartiainen E, Pekkanen J, Puska P. Body weight, Cardiovascular risk factors and coronary mortality: 15 year follow-up of middle-aged men and women in eastern Finland. Circulation 1996;93:1372–1379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Stampfer MJ, Maclure MK, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willet WC. Risk of symptomatic gallstones in women with severe obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;55:652–658.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Acalovschi MV, Blendea D, Pascu M, Georoceaunu A, Badea RI, Prelipceanu M. Risk of asymptomatic and symptomatic gallstones in moderately obese women: a longitudinal follow-up study. Am J Gastroenterol 1997;92:127–131.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Cicuttini FM, Baker JR, Spector TD. The association of obesity with osteoarthritis of the hand knee in women: a twin study. J Rheumatol 1996;23:1221–1226.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Garfinkel L. Overweight and cancer. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:1034–1036.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Moller H, Mellemgard A, Ludvig K, Olsen JH. Obesity and cancer risk; a Danish record linkage study. Eur J Cancer 1994;30A:344–350.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Chow W-H, Gridley G, Fraumeni JF, Jarvholm B. Obesity, hypertension and the risk of kidney cancer in men. N Engl J Med 2000;343:1305–1311.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Bergstrom A, Pisani P, Tenet V, et al. Overweight as an avoidable cause of cancer in Europe. Int J Cancer 2001;91:421–430.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. World Cancer Research Fund. Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. American Institute Cancer Research, Washington, DC, 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Rossner S, Longerstrand L, Persson HE, Sachs C. The sleep apnea syndrome of obesity: risk of sudden death. J Intern Med 1991;230:135–142.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Pasquali R, Vicennati V. Obesity and hormonal abnormalities. In: Bjorntorp P, ed. International Textbook of Obesity. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001, pp. 225–239.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  75. Sullivan M, Karlsson J, Sjostrom L, et al. Swedish obese subjects (SOS)—an intervention study of obesity. Baseline evaluation of health and psychosocial functioning in the first 1743 subjects examined. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1993;17:503–512.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Wolf AM, Colditz GA. Current estimates of the economic cost of obesity in the United States. Obes Res 1998;6:97–106.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. IOTF. Economic cost of obesity. Available at: http://www.obesite.chaire.ulaval.ca/ IOTF.htm.

  78. Freedman DS, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. The relation of overweight to cardiovascular risk factors among children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics 1999;103:1175–1182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Pinhas-Hamiel O, Dolan LM, Daniels SR, et al. Increased incidence of non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus among adolescents. J Pediatr 1996;126:608–615.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Goran ML Metabolic precursors and effects of obesity in children: a decade of progress, 1990–1999. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73:158–171.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Steinberger J, Moran A, Hong C-P, Jacobs D, Sinaiko AR. Adiposity in childhood predicts obesity and insulin resistance in young adulthood. J Pediatr 2001;138:469–473.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Young LR, Nestle M. The contribution of expanding portion sizes to the US obesity epidemic. Am J Public Health 2002;92:246–249.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Kant AK, Schatzkin A, Graubard BI, Schairer C. Consumption of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods by adult Americans: nutritional and health implications: the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:929–936.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Kennedy E, Goldberg J. What are American children eating? Implications for public policy. Nutr Rev 1995;53:111–126.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Crespo CJ, Smit E, Troiano RP, et al. Television watching, energy intake and obesity in US children: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988— 1994. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001;155:360–365.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Dietz WH. The obesity epidemic in young children: reduce television viewing and promote playing. BMJ 2001;322:313–314.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Williams CL. Can childhood obesity be prevented? In: Bendich A, Deckelbaum RJ, eds. Primary and Secondary Preventive Nutrition. Humana, Totowa, NJ, 2001, pp. 185–203.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Abenhaim L, Moride Y, Brenot F, et al. Appetite suppressant drugs and the risk of primary pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 1996;335: 609–616.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Cannistra LB, Davis SM, Bauman AG. Valvular heart disease associated with dex-fenfluramine. N Engl J Med 1997;337:636–639.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Kassirer JP, Angelí M. Losing weight—an ill-fated New Year’s resolution. N Engl J Med 1998;338:52–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Daubress J, Kolanowski J, Krzentowski M, et al. Usefulness of fluoxetine in obese non-insulin dependent diabetics: a multicenter study. Obes Res 1996;4:391–396.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Hind ID, Mangham JE, Ghani SP, Haddock RE, Earratt CJ, Jones RW. Sibutramine pharmacokinetics in young and elderly healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Phrmacol 1999;54:847–849.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Hansen DL, Toubro S, Stock MJ, Macdonald IA, Astrup A. Thermogenic effects of subutramine in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:1180–1186.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. James WPT, Astrup A, Finer N, et al. Effect of sibutramine on weight maintenance after weight loss: a randomized trial. Lancet 2000; 356:2119–2125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Apfelbaum M, Vague P, Ziegler O, Hanotin C, Thomas F, Leutenegger E. Long-term maintenance of weight loss after a very-low-calorie diet: a randomized blinded trial of the efficacy and tolerability of sibutramine. Am J Med 1999;106:179–184.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Wirth A, Krause J. Long-term weight loss with sibutramine: a randomized trial. JAMA 2001;286:1331–1339.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Dujovne CA, Zavoral JA, Rowe A, Mendel CM. Effects of sibutramine on body weight and serum lipids: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study in 322 overweight and obese patients with dyslipidemia. Am Heart J 2001;142:489–497.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Bray GA, Blackburn GL, Ferguson JM, et al. Sibutramine produces dose-related weight loss. ObesRes. 1999;7:189–198.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Smith IG, Goulder MA. Randomized placebo-controlled trial of long-term treatment with sibutramine in mild to moderate obesity. J Fam Pract 2001;50:505–512

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Guzman M, Sanchez C. Effects of cannabinoids on energy metabolism. Life Sei 1997;65:657–664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Heshmati HM, Caplain H, Bellisle F, et al. SR 14176, a selective cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, reduces hunger, caloric intake, and body weight in overweight or obese men. Obes Res 2001;9(suppl 3):70S.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Masaki T, Yoshimatsu H, Chiba S, Watanabe T, Sakata T. Central infusion of histamine reduces fat accumulation and upregulates UCP family in leptin-resistant obese mice. Diabetes 2001;50:376–384.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Sakata T, Yoshimatsu H, Kurokawa M. Hypothalamic neuronal histamine—implications of its homeostatic control of energy metabolism. Nutrition 1997;13:403–411.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Lecklin A, Etuseppala P, Stark H, Tuomisto L. Effects of intracerebroventricularly infused histamine and selective H-l, H-2 and H-3 agonists on food and water intake and urine flow in Wistar rats. Brain Res 1998;793:279–288.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Ahima RS, Flier JS. Leptin. Annu Rev Physiol 2000;62:413–437.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Montague CT, Farooqi IS, Whitehead JP, et al. Congenital leptin deficiency is associated with severe early-onset obesity in humans. Nature 1997;387:903–908.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Clement K, Vaisse C, Lahlou N, et al. A mutation in the human leptin receptor gene causes obesity and pituitary dysfunction. Nature 1998;392:398–401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Pelleymounter MA, Cullen MJ, Baker MB, Hecht R, et al. Effects of the obese gene product on body weight regulation in ob/ob mice. Science 1995;265:540–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Farooqi IS, Jebb SA, Langmack G, et al. Effects of recombinant therapy in a child with congenital leptin deficiency. N Engl J Med 1999;341:879–884.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Caro JF, Kolaczynski JW, Nyce MR, et al. Decreased cerebrospinal-fluid/serum leptin ratio in obesity: A possible mechanism for leptin resistance. Lancet 1996;348:159–161.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Heymsfield SB, Greenberg AS, Fujioka K, et al. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA 1999;282:1568–1575.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Hukshorn CJ, Saris WHM, Westerterp-Plantenga MS, Farid AR, Smith FJ, Campfield LA. Weekly subcutaneous pegylated recombinant native human leptin (PEG-OB) administration in obese men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:4003–4009.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. ALS CNTF Treatment Study Group. A double-blind placebo controlled clinical trial of subcutaneous recombinant human ciliary neurotrophic factor (rHCNTF) in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurology 1996;46:1244–1249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Hwa JJ, Witten MB, Williams P, et al. Activation of the NPY Y5 receptor regulates both feeding and energy expenditure. Am J Physiol 1999;46:R1428-R1434.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Hulsey MG, Pless CM, Martin RJ. ICV administration of anti-corticotropin-releasing factor antisense oligonucleotide: effects on feeding behavior and body weight. Regul Pept 1995;59:241–246.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Palmiter RD, Erickson JC, Hollopeter G, Baraban SC, Schwartz MW. Life without neuropeptide Y. Rec Prog Horm Res 1998;53:163–198.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Marsh DJ, Hollopeter G, Kafer KE, Palmiter RD. Role of the Y5 neuropeptide Y receptor in feeding and obesity. Nat Med 1998;4:718–721.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Pedrazzini T, Seydoux J, Kunstner P, et al. Cardiovascular response, feeding behavior and locomotor activity in mice lacking the NPY Yl receptor. Nat Med 1998;4:722–726.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Bittencourt JC, Elias CF. Melanin-concentrating hormone and neuropeptide EI projections from the lateral hypothalamic area and zona incerta to the medial septal nucleus and spinal cord, a study using multiple neuronal tracers. Brain Res 1998;806:1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Shimada M, Tritos NA, Lowell BB, Flier JS, Maratos-Flier E. Mice lacking melanin-concentrating hormone are hypophagic and lean. Nature 1998;396:670–674.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Ludwig DS, Tritos NA, Mastaitis JW, et al. Melanin-concentrating hormone overexpression in transgenic mice leads to obesity and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 2001;107:379–386.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Crawley JN. Biological actions of galanin. Regul Pept 1995;59:1–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Wynick D, Small CJ, Bloom SR, Pachnis V. Targeted disruption of murine galanin gene. Ann NY Acad Sei 1998;863:22–47.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Arch JRS, Haynes AC, Cai X, et al. Orexins, new neuropeptide receptor targets for anti-obesity drugs? Int J Obes 1999;23:S 16-S17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  125. Nishino S, Ripley B, Overeem S, Lammers GJ, Mignot E. Hypocretin (orexin) deficiency in human narcolepsy. Lancet 2000;355:39–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Peyron C, Faraco J, Rogers W, et al. A mutation in a case of early onset narcolepsy and a generalized absence of hypocretin peptides in human narcoleptic brains. Nat Med 2000;6:991–997.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Wardlaw SL. Obesity as a neuroendocrine disease: lessons to be learned from proopiomelanocortin and melanocortin receptor mutations in mice and men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1442–1446.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Wisse BE, Schwartz MW. Role of melanocortins in control of obesity. Lancet 2001;857–859.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Fehm HL, Rüdiger S, Werner K, McGregor GP, Bickel U, Born J. The melanocortin mel-anocyte-stimulating hormone/adrenocorticotropin4.,0 decreases body fat in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1144–1148.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Wessells H, Levine N, Hadley ME, Dorr R, Hruby V. Melanocortin receptor agonists, penile erection, and sexual motivation: human studies with Melanotan II. Int J Impot Res 2000;12(suppl4):S74-S79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Wilkberg JES. Melanocortin receptors: new opportunities in drug discovery. Exp Opin Ther Patents 2001;11:61–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Merali Z, Kateb CC. Rapid alterations of hypothalamic and hippocampal bombesin-like peptide levels with feeding status. Am J Physiol 1993;265:R420-R425.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Yamada K, Wada E, Wada K. Bombesin-like peptides: studies on food intake and social behaviour with receptor knock-out mice. Ann Med 2000;32:519–529.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Behan DP, Grigoriadis DE, Lovenberg T, et al. Neurobiology of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptors and CRF-binding protein: implications for the treatment of CNS disorders. Mol Psychiatry 1996;1:265–277.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Arase K, York DA, Shimizu H, Shargill N, Bray GA. Effects of corticotropin-releasing factor on food intake and brown adipose tissue thermogenesis in rats. Am J Physiol 1988;255:E255-E259.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Smith SR, de Jonge L, Pellymounter M, et al. Peripheral administration of human corticotropin-releasing hormone: a novel method to increase energy expenditure and fat oxidation in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1991–1998.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Spina M, Merlo-Pich E, Chan RK, et al. Appetite-suppressing effects of urocortin, a CRF-related neuropeptide. Science 1996;273:1561–1564.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Kristensen P, Judge ME, Thim L, et al. Hypothalamic CART is a new anorectic peptide regulated by leptin. Nature 1998;393:72–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Broglio F, Arvat E, Benso A, et al. Ghrelin, a natural GH secretagogue produced by the stomach, induces hyperglycemia and reduces insulin secretion in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:5083–5086.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Shintani M, Ogawa Y, Ebihara K, et al. Ghrelin, an endogenous growth hormone secretagogue, is a novel orexigenic peptide that antagonizes leptin action through the activation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y/Yl receptor pathway. Diabetes 2001;50:227–232.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Nagaya N, Miyatake K, Uematsu M, et al. Hemodynamic, renal, and hormonal effects of ghrelin infusion in patients with chronic heart failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:5854–5859.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Tang-Christensen M, Larsen PJ, Goke R, et al. Central administration of GLP-l-(7–36) amide inhibits food and water intake in rats. Am J Physiol 1996;271:R848-R856.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Verdich C, Flint A, Gutzwiller J-P, et al. A meta-analysis of the effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 (7–36) amide on ad libitum energy intake in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:4382–4389.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Moran TH, Katz LF, Plata-Salaman CR, Schwartz GJ. Disordered food intake and obesity in rats lacking cholecystokinin A receptor. Am J Physiol 1998;274:R618-R625.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Bray GA. Afferent signals regulating food intake. Proc Nutr Soc 2000;59:373–384.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Lucas KH, Kaplan-Machlis B. Orlistat—a novel weight loss therapy. Ann Pharmacother 2001;35:314–328.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Hollander PA, Elbein SC, Hirsch IB, et al. Role of orlistat in the treatment of obese patients with type 2 diabetes: a 1 year randomized double-blind study. Diabetes Care 1998;21:1288–1294.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Sjostrom L, Rissanen A, Andersen T, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of orlistat for weight loss and prevention of weight regain in obese patients. Lancet 1998;352:167–173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Davidson MH, Hauptman J, DiGirolamo M, et al. Weight control and risk factor reduction in obese subjects treated for 2 years with Orlistat: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999;281:235–242.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Finer N, James WPT, Kopelman PG, Lean MEJ, Williams G. One-year treatment of obesity: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre study of orlistat, a gastrointestinal lipase inhibitor. Int J Obes 2000;24:306–313.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Hauptman J, Lucas C, Boldrin MN, et al. Orlistat in the long-term treatment of obesity in primary care settings. Arch Fam Med 2000;9:160–167.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Muls E, Kolanowski J, Scheen A, et al. The effects of Orlistat on weight and on serum lipids in obese patients with hypercholesterolemia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre study. Int J Obes 2001;25:1713–1721.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Loftus TM, Jaworsky DE, FrehywotGL, et al. Reduced food intake and body weight in mice treated with fatty acid synthase inhibitors. Science 2000;288:2379–2381.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Abu-Elheiga L, Matzuk MM, Abo-Hashema KAH, Wakil SJ. Continuous fatty acid oxidation and reduced fat storage in mice lacking acetyl-CoA carboxylase 2. Science 2001;291:2613–2616.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Kahn BB, Flier JS. Obesity and insulin resistance. J Clin Invest 2000;106:473–481.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Waki H, et al. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with both lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat Med 2001;7:941–946.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Berg AH, Combs TP, Du X, Brownlee M, Scherer PE. The adipocyte-secreted protein Acrp30 enhances hepatic insulin action. Nat Med 2001;7:947–953.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Fruebis J, Tsao TS, Javorschi S, et al. Proteolytic cleavage product of 30-kDa adipocyte complement-related protein increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle and causes weight loss in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sei USA 2001;98:2005–2010.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Gertner JM. Growth hormone actions on fat distribution and metabolism. Horm Res 38:41–43.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Spryer G, Ellard S, Hattersley A. Growth-hormone treatment and risk of diabetes. Lancet 2000;355:1913–1914.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Heffernan MA, Thorburn AW, Farn B, et al. Increase of fat oxidation and weight loss in obese mice caused by chronic treatment with human growth hormone or a modified C-terminal fragment. Int J Obes 2001;25:1442–1449.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Collins S, Cao W, Daniel KW, et al. Adrenoceptors, uncoupling proteins, and energy expenditure. Exp Biol Med 2001;226:982–990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Ngozi E. Erondu MD, PhD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism Department of Internal Medicine, The University of Iowa School of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA

    Robert S. Bar MD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2003 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Erondu, N.E. (2003). Obesity. In: Bar, R.S. (eds) Early Diagnosis and Treatment of Endocrine Disorders. Contemporary Endocrinology. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-378-1_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-378-1_7

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-61737-414-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-378-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation