Abstract
Brain-computer interface (BCI) and virtual reality (VR) are natural companions. BCI provides a new interaction technique for controlling VR, and VR provides a rich feedback environment for BCI while retaining a controlled and safe environment. The combination of VR and BCI allows for providing participants with novel experiences that are impossible otherwise. Both fields still pose many technological challenges to scientists and engineers, but both are making rapid progress.
VR and BCI have been combined in multiple ways: BCI can be used for navigation in VR, for controlling a virtual body, and for controlling the virtual world directly. More recent directions explore the possibilities of using BCI for purposes other than control in VR, such as designing and implementing VR systems that adapt to the participant’s cognitive and emotional state.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsRecommended Reading
H. Alkadhi, P. Brugger, S.H. Boendermaker, G. Crelier, A. Curt, M.C. Hepp-Reymond, S.S. Kollias, What disconnection tells about motor imagery: evidence from paraplegic patients. Cereb. Cortex 15, 131–140 (2005). doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh116
J.D. Bayliss, Use of the evoked potential P3 component for control in a virtual apartment. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 11(2), 113–116 (2003)
J.D. Bayliss, D.H. Ballard, A virtual reality testbed for brain computer interface research. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8(2), 188–190 (2000)
C. Berka, D.J. Levendowski, M.M. Cvetinovic, M.M. Petrovic, G. Davis, M.N. Lumicao, … R. Olmstead, Real-time analysis of EEG indexes of alertness, cognition, and memory acquired with a wireless EEG headset. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. (2004) doi:10.1207/s15327590ijhc1702_3
I. Bermúdez, S. Badia, A. García Morgade, H. Samaha, P.F.M.J. Verschure, Using a hybrid brain computer interface and virtual reality system to monitor and promote cortical reorganization through motor activity and motor imagery training. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 21, 174–181 (2013). doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2012.2229295
M. Botvinick, J. Cohen, Rubber hands “feel” touch that eyes see. Nature 391(6669), 756 (1998)
P. Brunner, S. Joshi, S. Briskin, J.R. Wolpaw, H. Bischof, G. Schalk, Does the “P300” speller depend on eye gaze? J. Neural Eng. 7, 056013 (2010). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/7/5/056013
M. Cheng, X. Gao, S. Gao, D. Xu, Design and implementation of a brain-computer interface with high transfer rates. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 49, 1181–1186 (2002). doi:10.1109/TBME.2002.803536
J.A. Coan, J.J.B. Allen, Frontal EEG asymmetry as a moderator and mediator of emotion. Biol. Psychol. (2004). doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.002
O. Cohen, S. Druon, S. Lengagne, A. Mendelsohn, A. Kheddar, R. Malach, D. Friedman, fMRI-based robotic embodiment: a pilot study, in IEEE International Conference on Biomedical Robotics and Biomechatronics (Rome, 2012), pp. 314–319
O. Cohen, M. Koppel, R. Malach, D. Friedman, A generic machine learning tool for whole brain classification from fMRI. in 6th International BCI Conference, Graz, Austria, (2014a)
O. Cohen, M. Koppel, R. Malach, D. Friedman, Controlling an avatar by thought using real-time fMRI. J. Neural Eng. 11(3), 35006 (2014b)
R.J. Davidson, P. Ekman, C.D. Saron, J.A. Senulis, W.V. Friesen, Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: emotional expression and brain physiology. I. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 58, 330–341 (1990). doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.330
C. Davies, Virtual spaces, in Space: In Science, Art, and Society, ed. by F. Penz, G. Radick, R. Howell (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 2004), pp. 69–104
C. Davies, J. Harrison, Osmose: towards broadening the aesthetics of virtual reality. ACM Comput. Graph. [special Issue on Virtual Reality] 30(4), 25–28 (1996)
E. Donchin, K.M. Spencer, R. Wijesinghe, The mental prosthesis: assessing the speed of a P300-based brain- computer interface. IEEE Trans. Rehabil. Eng. 8, 174–179 (2000). doi:10.1109/86.847808
M. Donnerer, A. Steed, Using a P300 brain–computer interface in an immersive virtual environment. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 19(1), 12–24 (2010). doi:10.1162/pres.19.1.12
G. Edlinger, C. Holzner, C. Groenegress, C. Guger, M. Slater, Goal-oriented control with brain-computer interface, in Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics). LNAI, vol 5638 (2009), pp. 732–740. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02812-0_83
G. Edlinger, C. Holzner, C. Guger, A hybrid brain-computer interface for smart home control, in Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics). LNCS, vol 6762 (2011), pp. 417–426. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-21605-3_46
H.H. Ehrsson, The experimental induction of out-of-body experiences. Science 317(5841), 1048 (2007)
N. Evans, S. Gale, A. Schurger, O. Blanke, Visual feedback dominates the sense of agency for brain-machine actions. PLoS One 10(6), e0130019 (2015). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130019
J. Faller, R. Leeb, Avatar navigation in virtual and augmented reality environments using an SSVEP BCI ICABB-2010. … and Virtual Reality. (2010) Retrieved from http://brainable.org/Documents/FallerJ-ICABB.pdf
J. Faller, G. Müller-Putz, D. Schmalstieg, G. Pfurtscheller, An application framework for controlling an avatar in a desktop-based virtual environment via a software SSVEP brain–computer interface. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. (2010). doi:10.1162/pres.19.1.25
D. Friedman, R. Leeb, A. Antley, M. Garau, C. Guger, C. Keinrath, … M. Slater, Navigating virtual reality by thought: what is it like? Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 16(1), 100–110 (2007a)
D. Friedman, R. Leeb, L. Dikovsky, M. Reiner, G. Pfurtscheller, M. Slater, Controlling a virtual body by thought in a highly-immersive virtual environment. Proc. Graph. Appl. Barcelona, Spain, 83–90 (2007b)
D. Friedman, A. Donenfeld, E. Zafran, Neurophysiology-based art in immersive virtual reality. Int. J. Arts Technol. 2(4), 331 (2009)
D. Friedman, R. Leeb, G. Pfurtscheller, M. Slater, Human–computer interface issues in controlling virtual reality with brain–computer interface. Hum. Comput. Interact. 25(1), 67–94 (2010)
S.W. Gilroy, J. Porteous, F. Charles, M. Cavazza, E. Soreq, G. Raz, … T. Hendler, A brain-computer interface to a plan-based narrative, 1997–2005. (2013). Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2540128.2540415
J. Giron, D. Friedman, Eureka: realizing that an application is responding to your brainwaves, in Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Design and Development Methods for Universal Access (2014), Springer International Publishing, Crete, Greece, pp. 495–502
J. Giron, M. Segal, D. Friedman, Implicit learning of SSVEP based brain computer interface, in The 6th International Brain-Computer Interface Conference, (Graz, 2014)
C. Groenegress, C. Holzner, C. Guger, M. Slater, Effects of P300-based BCI use on reported presence in a virtual environment. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 19(1), 1–11 (2010). doi:10.1162/pres.19.1.1
C. Guger, G. Edlinger, W. Harkam, I. Niedermayer, G. Pfurtscheller, How many people are able to operate an EEG-based brain-computer interface (BCI)? IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 11, 145–147 (2003)
T. Harmelech, D. Friedman, R. Malach, Differential magnetic resonance neurofeedback modulations across extrinsic (visual) and intrinsic (default-mode) nodes of the human cortex. J. Neurosci. 35(6), 2588–2595 (2015)
C. Heeter, Being there: the subjective experience of presence. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 1(2), 262–271 (1992)
L.R. Hochberg, D. Bacher, B. Jarosiewicz, N.Y. Masse, J.D. Simeral, J. Vogel, … van der P. Smagt, Reach and grasp by people with tetraplegia using a neurally controlled robotic arm. Nature 485(7398), 372–375 (2012)
J.E. Huggins, J.R. Wolpaw, Papers from the fifth international brain-computer interface meeting. Preface. J. Neural Eng. 11, 030301 (2014). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/11/3/030301
I.E.E.S. Sutherland, The ultimate display, in Proceedings of the {IFIPS} Congress 1965 New York: IFIP, 65(2), 506–508 (1965)
D.J. Krusienski, M. Grosse-Wentrup, F. Galán, D. Coyle, K.J. Miller, E. Forney, C.W. Anderson, Critical issues in state-of-the-art brain-computer interface signal processing. J. Neural Eng. 8, 025002 (2011). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/8/2/025002
E. Lalor, S.P. Kelly, C. Finucane, R. Burke, R. Smith, R.B. Reilly, G. McDarby, Steady-state VEP-based brain computer interface control in an immersive 3-D gaming environment. EURASIP JASP 19, 3156–3164 (2005)
F. Larrue, H. Sauzéon, L. Aguilova, F. Lotte, M. Hachet, B.N. Kaoua, Brain computer interface vs walking interface in VR: the impact of motor activity on spatial transfer, in Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, VRST (2012), pp. 113–120. doi:10.1145/2407336.2407359
R. Leeb, C. Keinrath, D. Friedman, C. Guger, C. Neuper, M. Garau, … G. Pfurtscheller, Walking from thoughts: not the muscles are crucial, but the brain waves! Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. (2006). doi:10.1155/2007/79642
R. Leeb, D. Friedman, G.R. Müller-Putz, R. Scherer, M. Slater, G. Pfurtscheller, Self-paced (asynchronous) BCI control of a wheelchair in virtual environments: a case study with a tetraplegic. Comput. Intell. Neurosci. (2007a)
R. Leeb, F. Lee, C. Keinrath, R. Scherer, H. Bischof, G. Pfurtscheller, Brain-computer communication: motivation, aim, and impact of exploring a virtual apartment. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 15(4), 473–482 (2007b). doi:10.1109/TNSRE.2007.906956
R. Leeb, V. Settgast, D. Fellner, G. Pfurtscheller, Self-paced exploration of the Austrian National Library through thought. Int. J. Bioelectromagn. 9, 237–244 (2007c)
R. Leeb, M. Lancelle, V. Kaiser, D. Fellner, G. Pfurtscheller, Thinking penguin: multimodal brain-computer interface control of a VR game. IEEE Trans. Comput. Intell. AI Games 5, 117–128 (2013). doi:10.1109/TCIAIG.2013.2242072
J. Legény, R.V. Abad, A. Lécuyer, Navigating in virtual worlds using a self-paced SSVEP-based brain–computer interface with integrated stimulation and real-time feedback. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 20(6), 529–544 (2011). doi:10.1162/PRES_a_00075
Y. Liu, O. Sourina, M.K. Nguyen, Real-time EEG-based emotion recognition and its applications, in Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics). LNCS, vol 6670 (2011), pp. 256–277. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22336-5_13
Y. Liu, X. Jiang, T. Cao, F. Wan, P.U. Mak, P.I. Mak, M.I. Vai, Implementation of SSVEP based BCI with Emotiv EPOC, in Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Virtual Environments, Human-Computer Interfaces, and Measurement Systems, VECIMS (2012), pp 34–37. doi:10.1109/VECIMS.2012.6273184
M. Lombard, T.B. Ditton, At the heart of it all: the concept of presence. J. Comput. Mediat. Commun. 3(2), 20 pp (1997). doi:10.1093/cid/cir583
F. Lotte, A. van Langhenhove, F. Lamarche, T. Ernest, Y. Renard, B. Arnaldi, A. Lécuyer, Exploring large virtual environments by thoughts using a brain–computer interface based on motor imagery and high-level commands. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 19(1), 54–70 (2010). doi:10.1162/pres.19.1.54
D.P. Marcos, H. Ehrsson, M.V. Sanchez, Inducing illusory ownership of a virtual body. Front. Neurosci. 3(2), 214–220 (2009)
A. Maselli, M. Slater, The building blocks of the full body ownership illusion. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7, 83 (2013). doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00083
C.C. Neira, D.J. Sandin, T.A. DeFanti, R.V. Kenyon, J.C. Hart, The CAVE: audio visual experience automatic virtual environment. Comm. ACM 35(6), 65–72 (1992).
W. Nelson, L. Hettinger, J. Cunningham, M.R. Nelson, Navigating through virtual flight environments using brain-body-actuated control, in Proceedings of IEEE Virtual Reality Annual International Symposium (1997), pp. 30–37
G. Pfurtscheller, R. Leeb, C. Keinrath, D. Friedman, C. Neuper, C. Guger, M. Slater, Walking from thought. Brain Res. 1071(1), 145–152 (2006)
G. Pfurtscheller, R. Leeb, D. Friedman, M. Slater, Centrally controlled heart rate changes during mental practice in immersive virtual environment: a case study with a tetraplegic. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 68(1), 1–5 (2008). doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2007.11.003
R.W. Picard, Affective computing. Pattern Recogn. 73. (1997) doi:10.1007/BF01238028
D. Plass-Oude Bos, B. Reuderink, B. Laar, H. Gürkök, C. Mühl, M. Poel, … D. Heylen, Brain-computer interfacing and games, in Brain-Computer Interfaces (2010), pp. 149–178. doi:10.1007/978-1-84996-272-8
H. Putnam, Brain in a vat, in Reason, Truth, and History (1982), Cambridge University Press, pp. 5–8
J.R. Quinlan, Induction of decision trees. Mach. Learn. 1(1), 81–106 (1986)
Y. Renard, F. Lotte, G. Gibert, M. Congedo, E. Maby, V. Delannoy, … A. Lécuyer, OpenViBE: an open-source software platform to design, test, and use brain–computer interfaces in real and virtual environments. Presence Teleop. Virt. Environ. (2010). doi:10.1162/pres.19.1.35
M.V. Sanchez-Vives, M. Slater, From presence to consciousness through virtual reality. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 6(4), 332–339 (2005)
R. Scherer, F. Lee, A. Schlogl, R. Leeb, H. Bischof, G. Pfurtscheller, Toward self-paced brain–computer communication: navigation through virtual worlds. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 55(2), 675–682 (2008)
M. Slater, Presence in immersive virtual environments, in Proceedings of the IEEE Virtual Reality 1993 (Seattle, 1993)
M. Slater, Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. 364(1535), 3549–3557 (2009)
M. Slater, D. Perez-Marcos, H.H. Ehrsson, M.V. Sanchez-Vives, Towards a digital body: the virtual arm illusion. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2, 6 (2008). doi:10.3389/neuro.09.006.2008
M. Slater, D. Perez-Marcos, H.H. Ehrsson, M.V. Sanchez-Vives, Inducing illusory ownership of a virtual body. Front. Neurosci. 3(2), 214 (2009)
Y. Su, Y. Qi, J. Luo, B. Wu, F. Yang, Y. Li, … W. Chen, A hybrid brain-computer interface control strategy in a virtual environment. J. Zhejiang Univ. Sci. C (2011). doi:10.1631/jzus.C1000208
M. Van Gerven, J. Farquhar, R. Schaefer, R. Vlek, J. Geuze, A. Nijholt, … P. Desain, The brain-computer interface cycle. J. Neural Eng. 6, 041001 (2009). doi:10.1088/1741-2560/6/4/041001
B.G. Witmer, M.J. Singer, Measuring presence in virtual environments: a presence questionnaire. Telepresence Teleop. Virt. Environ. 7(3), 225–240 (1998)
T.O. Zander, C. Kothe, Towards passive brain–computer interfaces: applying brain–computer interface technology to human–machine systems in general. J. Neural Eng. 8(2), 25005 (2011)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore
About this entry
Cite this entry
Friedman, D. (2017). Brain-Computer Interfacing and Virtual Reality. In: Nakatsu, R., Rauterberg, M., Ciancarini, P. (eds) Handbook of Digital Games and Entertainment Technologies. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4560-50-4_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4560-50-4_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-4560-49-8
Online ISBN: 978-981-4560-50-4
eBook Packages: EngineeringReference Module Computer Science and Engineering