Abstract
Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are home to the vast majority of the world’s population. These countries tend to lack adequate resources to meet the mental health needs of their populations. The limited infrastructure for supporting mental health in LMIC tends to be concentrated in urban areas, with remote and rural areas fairing much worse. Particular challenges relate to a lack of highly skilled practitioners to deliver support. Drawing on insights from Global Mental Health, the chapter reflects on innovative and pragmatic strategies that can help to bolster mental health provision in remote and rural parts of LMICs. These include “task-sharing” initiatives which aim to train nonspecialist workers to assume responsibilities which have historically been undertaken by highly skilled practitioners. Issues relating to the training and supervision of nonspecialists are flagged as being central to the success of these initiatives. The chapter highlights the importance of attending to the social and cultural context in which people live their lives. Incorporating local language terms and local explanatory models for distress into interventions is presented as key to maximizing engagement with local communities. Case studies from Uganda and Bangladesh are used to illustrate key points. International collaborations are highlighted as an important vehicle for building capacity for remote and rural mental health provision in LMICs. However, such collaborations will necessitate attention to be allocated to how dynamics of power operate at the meeting space between different epistemologies and the risk that local ways of understanding could be subjugated in such collaborations. While acknowledging the importance of directly addressing distress experienced by people living in remote and rural areas of LMIC, the chapter also recognizes that resilience factors can serve to mitigate against the impact of adversity on these communities. Consideration is given to the importance of harnessing collective strengths, so that “community” can serve as a resource to promote mental health and well-being.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbo C. Profiles and outcome of traditional healing practices for severe mental illnesses in two districts of Eastern Uganda. Glob Health Action. 2011:4. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v4i0.7117.
Acharya B, Tenpa J, Basnet M, Hirachan S, Rimal P, Choudhury N, et al. Developing a scalable training model in global mental health: pilot study of a video-assisted training Program for Generalist Clinicians in Rural Nepal. Glob Ment Health. 2017;4:e8.
Angel R, Thoits P. The impact of culture on the cognitive structure of illness. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1987;11:465–94.
Atif N, Lovell K, Husain N, Sikander S, Patel V, Rahman A. Barefoot therapists: barriers and facilitators to delivering maternal mental health care through peer volunteers in Pakistan: a qualitative study. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2016;10:24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-016-0055-9.
Axinn W, Ghimire DG, Williams NE, Scott KM. Associations between social organisation of communities and psychiatric disorders in rural Asia. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2015;50:1537–45.
Babalola E, Noel P, White R. The biopsychosocial approach and global mental health: synergies and opportunities. Indian J Soc Psychiatry. 2017;33(4):291.
Barry MM, Dowling K. A review of the evidence on enhancing Psychosocial skills development in children and young people. Galway: HPRC, National University of Ireland; 2015. https://doi.org/10.13025/S8001V.
Beidas RS, Kendall PC. Training therapists in evidence-based practice: a critical review of studies from a systems-contextual perspective. Clin Psychol (N Y). 2010;17:1–30.
Bhola P, Chaturvedi SK. Through a glass, darkly: ethics of mental health practitioner-patient relationships in traditional societies. Int J Cult Ment Health. 2017;10(3):285–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2017.1301975.
Bruckner TA, Scheffler RM, Shen G. Yoon J, Chisholm D, Morris J, Fulton BD, Dal Poz MR, Saxena S. The mental health workforce gap in low- and middle-income countries: a needs-based approach. B World Health Organ. 2011;89(3):184–194.
Carey TA, Mansell W, Tai SJ. A biopsychosocial model based on negative feedback and control. Front Hum Neurosci. 2014;8:article 94. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00094.
Chatterjee S, Leese M, Koschorke M, McCrone P, Naik S, John S, Thornicroft G. Collaborative community based care for people and their families living with schizophrenia in India: protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2011;12:12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-12-12.
Chorpita BF, Daleiden EL, Weisz JR. Identifying and selecting the common elements of evidence based interventions: a distillation and matching model. Ment Health Serv Res. 2005;7(1):5–20.
Cooper S. Research on help-seeking for mental illness in Africa: dominant approaches and possible alternatives. Transcult Psychiatry. 2016;53(6):696–718.
Czyzewski K. Colonialism as a broader social determinant of health. Int Indigenous Pol J. 2011;2(1). Retrieved from: http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/iipj/vol2/iss1/5
d’Ardene P. Counselling In transcultural settings. Priorities for a restless world. Los Angeles: Sage Publications Ltd; 2013.
Drake RE, Whitley R. Building behavioral health systems from the ground up. World Psychiatry. 2015;14(1):50–1.
Engel GL. The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science. 1977;196(4286):129–36.
Fairburn CG, Cooper Z. Therapist competence, therapy quality, and therapist training. Behav Res Ther. 2011;49:373–8.
Freeman M, Motsei M. Planning health care in South Africa–is there a role for traditional healers?. Soc Sci Med. 1992;34(11):1183–90.
Fried EI, Nesse RM. The impact of individual depressive symptoms on impairment of psychosocial functioning. PLoS One. 2014;9(2):e90311.
George AS, Scott K, Sarriot E, Kanjilal B, Peters DH. Unlocking community capabilities across health systems in LMIC: lessons learned from research and reflective practice. BMC Health Serv Res. 2016;16:1859.
Ghaemi SN. The rise and fall of the biopsychosocial model. British J Psychiatry. 2009;195(1):3–4.
Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh Ministry of Health and Family. Health bulletin 2016. Dhaka: Directorate General of Health Services; 2016.
Greco G, Skordis-Worrall J, Mkandawire B, Mills A. What is a good life? Selecting capabilities to assess women’s quality of life in rural Malawi. Soc Sci Med. 2015;130:69–78.
Groleau D, Young A, Kirmayer LJ. The McGill Illness Narrative Interview (MINI): an interview schedule to elicit meanings and modes of reasoning related to illness experience. Transcult Psychiatry. 2006;43:671–91.
Hacking I. The looping effects of human kinds. In: Sperber D, Premack D, Premack AJ, editors. Causal cognition: a multidisciplinary approach. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1995.
Hagerty B, Williams RA, Coyne JC, Early MR. Sense of belonging and indicators of social and psychological functioning. Arch Psychiatr Nurs. 1996;10(4):235–44.
Hamad R, Fernald LCH, Karlan DS, Zinman J. Social and economic correlates of depressive symptoms and perceived stress in South African adults. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2008;62(6):538–44. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2007.066191.
Harvey AG, Watkins E, Mansell W, Shafran R. Cognitive behavioural processes across psychological disorders: a transdiagnostic approach to research and treatment. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004.
Herschell AD, Kolko DJ, Baumann BL, Davis AC. The role of therapist training in the implementation of psychosocial treatments: a review and critique with recommendations. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30:448–66.
Hossain MD, Ahmed HU, Chowdhury WA, Niessen LW, Alam DS. Mental disorders in Bangladesh: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2014;14:216. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-014-0216-9.
Joshi R, Alim M, Kengne AP, Jan S, Maulik PK, Peiris D, Patel AA. Task shifting for non-communicable disease management in low and middle income countries – a systematic review. PLOS One. 2014;9:e103754.
Kagee A, Tsai AC, Lund C, Tomlinson M. Screening for common mental disorders in low resource settings: reasons for caution and a way forward. Int Health. 2013;5:11–4.
Kakuma R, Minas H, van Ginneken N, Dal Poz MR, Desiraju K, Morris JE, et al. Human resources for mental health care: current situation and strategies for action. Lancet. 2011;378(9803):1654–63.
Keyes E, Kane C. Belonging and adapting: mental health of Bosnian Refugees living in the United States. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 2009;25(8):809–31.
Kigozi F, et al. An overview of Uganda’s mental health care system: results from an assessment using the world health organization’s assessment instrument for mental health systems (WHOAIMS). Int J Ment Health Syst. 2010;4:1.
Kirmayer LJ. Beyond the ‘new cross-cultural psychiatry’: cultural biology, discursive psychology and the ironies of globalization. Transcult Psychiatry. 2006;43(1):126–44.
Kleinman A. Patients and healers in the context of culture: an exploration of the borderland between anthropology, medicine, and psychiatry. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1980.
Klinghardt D. The five levels of healing. Explore. 2005;14:15.
Kohrt BA, Jordans MJD, Turner EL, Sikkema KJ, Luitel NP, Rai S, Patel V. Reducing stigma among healthcare providers to improve mental health services (RESHAPE): protocol for a pilot cluster randomized controlled trial of a stigma reduction intervention for training primary healthcare workers in Nepal. Pilot Feasibility Stud. 2018;4:36. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40814-018-0234-3.
Kolb DA. Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall; 1984.
Lamblin M, Murawski C, Whittle S, Fornito A. Social connectedness, mental health and the adolescent brain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2017;80:57–68.
Lloyd KR, Jacob KS, Patel V, et al. The development of the short explanatory model interview (SEMI) and its use among primary-care attenders with common mental disorders. Psychol Med. 1998;28:1231–7.
Lund C, Tomlinson M, De Silva M, Fekadu A, Shidhaye R, Jordans M, et al. PRIME: a programme to reduce the treatment gap for mental disorders in five low-and middle-income countries. PLoS Med. 2012;9(12):e1001359.
Mendenhall E, De Silva MJ, Hanlon C, Petersen I, Shidhaye R, Jordans M, et al. Acceptability and feasibility of using non-specialist health workers to deliver mental health care: stakeholder perceptions from the PRIME district sites in Ethiopia, India, Nepal, South Africa, and Uganda. Soc Sci Med. 2014;118:33–42.
Metzler J, Savage K, Yamano M, Ager A. Evaluation of child friendly spaces: an inter-agency series of impact evaluations in humanitarian emergencies. New York/Geneva: Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health and World Vision International; 2015.
Mills C. Decolonizing global mental health: the psychiatrization of the majority world. London/New York: Routledge; 2014.
Mills C, White RG. ‘Global mental health spreads like Bush fire in the Global South’: efforts to scale up mental health services in low-and middle-income countries. In: The Palgrave handbook of sociocultural perspectives on global mental health. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2017. p. 187–209.
Murray L, Dorsay S, Bolton P, Jordans M, Rahman A, Bass J, Verdeli H. Building capacity in mental health interventions in low resources countries: an apprenticeship model for training local providers. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2011;5:30.
Nakimuli-Mpungu E, Bass JK, Alexandre P, Mills EJ, Musisi S, Ram M, Katabira E, Nachega JB. Depression, alcohol use and adherence to antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2012;16(8):2101–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0087-8.
Nakimuli-Mpungu E, Wamala K, Okello J, Alderman S, Odokonyero R, Musisi S, Mojtabai R. Developing a culturally sensitive group support intervention for depression among HIV infected and non-infected Ugandan adults: a qualitative study. J Affect Disord. 2014;163:10–7.
Nakimuli-Mpungu E, Wamala K, Okello J, Alderman S, Odokonyero R, Mojtabai R, Mills E, Kanters S, Nachega J, Musisi S. Group support psychotherapy for depression treatment in people with HIV/AIDS in northern Uganda: a single-centre randomised controlled trial. Lancet HIV. 2015;2(5):e190–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3018(15)00041-7.
Nakimuli-Mpungu E, Musisi S, Wamala K, Okello J, Ndyanabangi S, Mojtabai R, et al. The effect of group support psychotherapy delivered by trained lay health workers for depression treatment among people with HIV in Uganda: protocol of a pragmatic, cluster randomized trial. JMIR Res Protoc. 2017a;6(12):e8.
Nakimuli-Mpungu E, Wamala K, Okello J, Ndyanabangi S, Kanters S, Mojtabai R, Nachega J, Mills E, Musisi S. Process evaluation of a randomized controlled trial of group support psychotherapy for depression treatment among people with HIV/AIDS in Northern Uganda. Community Ment Health J. 2017b;53(8):991–1004.
Nortje G, Oladeji B, Gureje O, Seedat S. Effectiveness of traditional healers in treating mental disorders: a systematic review. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(2):154–70.
Nussbaum M. Capabilities and social justice. Int Stud Rev. 2002;4(2):123–35.
Okello E, Musisi S. Depression as a clan illness (eByekika): an indigenous model of psychotic depression among the Baganda of Uganda. J World Cult Psychiatry Res Rev. 2001;1:60–73.
Padmanathan P, De Silva MJ. The acceptability and feasibility of task-sharing for mental healthcare in LMIC: a systematic review. Soc Sci Med. 2013;97:82–6.
Patel V, Prince M. Global mental health: a new global health field comes of age. JAMA. 2010;303(19):1976–7.
Patel V. Traditional healers for mental health care in Africa. Glob Health Act. 2011;4. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v4i0.7956.
Rahman A, Sikander S, Malik A, Ahmed I, Tomenson B, Creed F. Effective treatment of perinatal depression for women in debt and lacking financial empowerment in a low-income country. Br J Psychiatry. 2012;201(6):451–7.
Rathod S, Pinninti N, Irfan M, Gorczynski P, Rathod P, Gega L, Naeem F. Mental health service provision in low-and middle-income countries. Health Serv Insights. 2017; 10:1178632917694350.
Ray ML, Wilson MM, Wandersman A, Meyers DC, Katz J. Using a training-of-trainers approach and proactive technical assistance to bring evidence based programs to scale: an operationalization of the interactive systems framework’s support system. Am J Community Psychol. 2012;50:415–27.
Raymond CW. Epistemic brokering in the interpreter-mediated medical visit: negotiating ‘patient’s side’ and ‘doctor’s side’ knowledge. Res Lang Soc Interact. 2014;47(4):426–46.
Rüdell K, Bhui K, Priebe S. Concept, development and application of a new mixed method assessment of cultural variations in illness perceptions: barts explanatory model inventory. J Health Psychol. 2009;14(2):336–47.
Said E. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books; 1979.
Saraceno B, Dua T. Global mental health: the role of psychiatry. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009;259:S109–17.
Saraceno B, van Ommeren M, Batniji R, Cohen A, Gureje O, Mahoney J, et al. Barriers to improvement of mental health services in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet. 2007;370(9593):1164–74.
Saxena S, Thornicroft G, Knapp M, Whiteford H. Resources for mental health: scarcity, inequity, and inefficiency. The Lancet. 2007;370(9590):878–89.
Schoenwald SK, Sheidow AJ, Chapman JE. Clinical supervision in treatment transport: Effects on adherence and outcomes. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2009;77(3):410–21.
Sen A. Commodities and capabilities: Amartya Sen. Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1999.
Shah A, Wheeler L, Sessions K, Kuule Y, Agaba E, Merry SP. Community perceptions of mental illness in rural Uganda: an analysis of existing challenges facing the Bwindi Mental Health Programme. Afr J Prim Health Care Fam Med. 2017;9(1):1–9.
Shields-Zeeman L, Pathare S, Walters BH, et al. Promoting wellbeing and improving access to mental health care through community champions in rural India: the Atmiyata intervention approach. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2017;11:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-016-0113-3.
Sorsdahl K, Stein DJ, Grimsrud A, Seedat S, Flisher AJ, Williams DR, Myer L. Traditional healers in the treatment of common mental disorders in South Africa. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2009;197(6):434–41.
Southwick SM, Bonanno GA, Masten AS, Panter-Brick C, Yehuda R. Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: interdisciplinary perspectives. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2014;5. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338.
Southwick SM, Charney DS. Resilience: the science of mastering life’s greatest challenges. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2012.
Stacey RD. Complex responsive processes in organizations: learning and knowledge creation. Routledge; 2001.
Summerfield D. How scientifically valid is the knowledge base of global mental health? Br Med J. 2008;336(7651):992.
Summerfield D. Afterword: against ‘global mental health’. Transcult Psychiatry. 2012;49(3–4):519–30.
Swartz L, Kilian S, Twesigye J, Attah D, Chiliza B. Language, culture, and task shifting–an emerging challenge for global mental health. Glob Health Action. 2014;7(1):23433.
The Independent. 2015. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/lra-war-crimes-trial-joseph-kony-general-abducted-into-lords-resistance-army-as-a-child-is-charged-with-crimes-against-humanity-10004053.html
The Lancet Series on Global Mental Health. The Lancet. 2007. http://www.thelancet.com/series/global-mental-health. Retrieved 29 Mar 2018
The Lancet Series on Global Mental Health. The Lancet. 2011. http://www.thelancet.com/series/global-mental-health-2011. Retrieved 29 Mar 2018
Tol W, Barbui C, Galappatti A, Silove D, Betancourt TS, Souza R, Golaz A, Van Ommeren M. Mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian settings: linking practice and research. The Lancet. 2011;378(9802):1581–91.
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. n.d.. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/socialdeterminants/docs/what_is_cultural_competency.pdf
Uganda Bureau of Statistics. The national population and housing census 2014 – main report, Kampala. 2016.
UNFPA. Report on women and girl friendly spaces. 2015. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/resource-pdf/UNFPA%20UNFPA%20Women%20and%20Girls%20Safe%20Spaces%20Guidance%20%5B1%5D.pdf
Ungar M. Resilience across cultures. Br J Soc Work. 2008;38(2):218–35. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcl343.
Ungar M. The social ecology of resilience: addressing contextual and cultural ambiguity of a nascent construct. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2011;81(1):1–17.
Ungar M. Social ecologies and their contribution to resilience. In: Ungar M, editor. The social ecology of resilience: a handbook of theory and practice. New York: Springer Science + Business Media; 2012. p. 13–31.
United Nations. 2014. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/publications/files/wup2014-highlights.pdf
Uthman OA, Magidson JF, Safren SA, Nachega JB. Depression and adherence to antiretroviral therapy in low-, middle-and high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2014;11(3):291–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11904-014-0220-1.
van Ginneken N, Tharyan P, Lewin S, Rao GN, Meera SM, Pian J, et al. Non-specialist health worker interventions for the care of mental, neurological and substance- abuse disorders in LMIC. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;11:CD009149.
Ventevogel P. Integration of mental health into primary healthcare in low-income countries: avoiding medicalization. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2014;26(6):669–79.
Watters C. Three challenges to a life course approach in global mental health: epistemic violence, temporality and forced migration. In: White RG, Jain S, Orr DMR, Read UM, editors. The Palgrave handbook of sociocultural perspectives on global mental health. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2017. p. 237–56.
Weine S, Danieli Y, Silove D, Ommeren MV, Fairbank JA, Saul J. Guidelines for international training in mental health and psychosocial interventions for trauma exposed populations in clinical and community settings. Psychiatry. 2002;65:156–64.
Weiss M. Explanatory model interview catalogue (EMIC): framework for comparative study of illness. Transcult Psychiatry. 1997;34:235–63.
Weisz JR, Ugueto AM, Herren J, Afienko SR, Rutt C. Kernels vs. ears, and other questions for a science of treatment dissemination. Clin Psychol: Publ Div Clin Psychol Am Psychol Assoc. 2011;18(1):41–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01233.x.
White RG, Imperiale MG, Perera E. The capabilities approach: fostering contexts for enhancing mental health and wellbeing across the globe. Glob Health. 2016;12(1):16.
White RG, Orr DM, Read UM, Jain S. Situating global mental health: sociocultural perspectives. In: The Palgrave handbook of sociocultural perspectives on global mental health. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 2017. p. 1–27.
White RG, Fay R, Chiumento A, Phipps A. Multi-language communication about wellbeing and distress: epistemic and ethical considerations. Transcult Psychiatry. 2020; in press.
WHO. WHO policy perspective on medicines traditional medicine – growing needs and potentials. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2002.
WHO. WHO Technical Brief No.3 – DRAFT 3: scaling up health services: challenges and choices. 2008. http://www.who.int/healthsystems/topics/delivery/technical_brief_scale-up_june12.pdf. Retrieved 30 Mar 2018.
World Bank. Country Profile – Uganda http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/uganda/overview. Retrieved 8 Jan 2018.
World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: recommendations for a public health approach. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2016.
World Health Organization, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare Bangladesh. WHO-AIMS Report on Mental Health System in Bangladesh. In A report of the assessment of the mental health system in Bangladesh using the World Health Organization – Assessment Instrument for Mental Health Systems (WHO-AIMS). 2007. http://www.who.int/mental_health/bangladesh_who_aims_report.pdf
World Health Organization, World Organization of National Colleges, Academies, & Academic Associations of General Practitioners/Family Physicians. Integrating mental health into primary care: a global perspective. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2008.
World Health Organization. Mental Health Atlas – Uganda Country Profile. 2014. https://www.who.int/mental_health/evidence/atlas/profiles-2014/uga.pdf?ua=1. Retrieved 8 Jan 2018.
World Health Organization. Regional Office for the Western Pacific. Bangladesh health system review. Manila: WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific; 2015.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
About this entry
Cite this entry
White, R.G., Islam, N., Kasujja, R. (2021). Global Mental Health Perspectives on Rural and Remote Mental Health Provision. In: Carey, T.A., Gullifer, J. (eds) Handbook of Rural, Remote, and very Remote Mental Health. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6631-8_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6631-8_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-15-6630-1
Online ISBN: 978-981-15-6631-8
eBook Packages: MedicineReference Module Medicine