Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Inhalation and Skin Exposure to Chemicals in Hospital Settings

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Indoor Air Quality

Abstract

Healthcare is one of the largest and fastest growing industries worldwide. It is complex and comprises different occupations directly providing healthcare services, and occupations providing other supporting services. The industry is changing rapidly with advances in medical science and new technologies. It faces new challenges stemming from changing demographics, migration, environmental and geopolitical instability, increased demand and cost of health services, and new disease outbreaks, all contributing to new hazards or exacerbating existing ones. A healthy healthcare workforce is central to sustain healthcare systems and for a prosperous society and economy. However, healthcare workers are exposed to a mixture of hazards that can include chemical (anesthetic gases), biological (pathogens), physical (radiation), ergonomic (musculoskeletal), psychosocial (stress), and safety hazards (violence). Chemical hazards arise from sources, such as cleaning, disinfecting, and sterilizing agents, solvents, glues, metals, hazardous drugs, laboratory chemical reagents, waste anesthetic gases, surgical smoke, and other indoor air contaminants. Working in healthcare is associated with a spectrum of adverse health outcomes including respiratory, reproductive, dermatologic, neurologic, other systemic outcomes, and cancer. These exposures and health hazards are preventable but continue to occur among healthcare workers in part because industry attention is focused on preventing healthcare-associated infections in patients caused by pathogens. Healthcare workers’ exposures to chemicals is consequently not well recognized and disease prevention or exposure mitigation measures are not fully implemented. The focus of this review is to highlight inhalation and dermal exposures to chemicals among various occupations and units in healthcare and identify opportunities for exposure mitigation and disease prevention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adisesh A, Murphy E, Barber CM, Ayres JG (2011) Occupational asthma and rhinitis due to detergent enzymes in healthcare. Occup Med (Lond) 61(5):364–369

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • AOEC (2012) Exposure code lookup. http://www.aoecdata.org/ExpCodeLookup.aspx. Accessed 23 July 2013

  • Arif AA, Delclos GL (2012) Association between cleaning-related chemicals and work-related asthma and asthma symptoms among healthcare professionals. Occup Environ Med 69(1):35–40

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes S, Stuart R, Redley B (2019) Health care worker sensitivity to chlorhexidine-based hand hygiene solutions: a cross-sectional survey. Am J Infect Control 47(8):933–937

    Google Scholar 

  • Bello A, Quinn MM, Milton DK, Perry MJ (2013) Determinants of exposure to 2-butoxyethanol from cleaning tasks: a quasi-experimental study. Ann Occup Hyg 57(1):125–135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benson SM, Maskrey JR, Nembhard MD, Unice KM, Shirley MA, Panko JM (2019) Evaluation of personal exposure to surgical smoke generated from electrocautery instruments: a pilot study. Ann Work Expo Health 63(9):990–1003

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bessonneau V, Mosqueron L, BerrubĂ© A, Mukensturm G, Buffet-Bataillon S, Gangneux J-P et al (2013) VOC contamination in hospital, from stationary sampling of a large panel of compounds, in view of healthcare workers and patients exposure assessment. PLoS One 8(2):e55535

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • BLS (2018) 2017 Survey of occupational injuries & illnesses charts package. https://www.bls.gov/iif/osch0062.pdf. Accessed 13 June 2021

  • BLS (2020) Current population survey. Characteristics of the employed. https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat18.htm. Accessed 13 June 2021

  • Boiano JM, Steege AL (2016) Precautionary practices for administering anesthetic gases: a survey of physician anesthesiologists, nurse anesthetists and anesthesiologist assistants. J Occup Environ Hyg 13(10):782–793

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonnet P, Achille J, Malingre L, Duret H, Ramalho O, Mandin C (2018) VOCs in cleaning products used in age care and social facilities: identification of hazardous substances. AIMS Environ Sci 5(6):402–417

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyce JM, Pittet D (2002) Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings: recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Am J Infect Control 30(8):S1–S46

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrns G, Palatianos KC, Shands L, Fennelley K, McCammon C, Boudreau A et al (2000) Chemical hazards in radiology. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 15(2):203–208

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng NY, Chuang HC, Shie RH, Liao WH, Hwang YH (2019) Pilot studies of VOC exposure profiles during surgical operations. Ann Work Expo Health 63(2):173–183

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cipolla M, Izzotti A, Ansaldi F, Durando P, Piccardo MT (2017) Volatile organic compounds in anatomical pathology wards: comparative and qualitative assessment of indoor airborne pollution. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(6):609

    Google Scholar 

  • Clausen PA, Frederiksen M, Sejbæk CS, Sørli JB, Hougaard KS, Frydendall KB et al (2020) Chemicals inhaled from spray cleaning and disinfection products and their respiratory effects. A comprehensive review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 229:113592

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cokic SM, Duca RC, Godderis L, Hoet PH, Seo JW, Van Meerbeek B et al (2017) Release of monomers from composite dust. J Dent 60:56–62

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crul M, Hilhorst S, Breukels O, Bouman-d’Onofrio JRC, Stubbs P, van Rooij JG (2020) Occupational exposure of pharmacy technicians and cleaning staff to cytotoxic drugs in Dutch hospitals. J Occup Environ Hyg 17(7–8):343–352

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dancer SJ (2011) Hospital cleaning in the 21st century. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 30(12):1473–1481

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Darre E, Jørgensen LG, Vedel P, Jensen JS (1992) Breathing zone concentrations of methylmethacrylate monomer during joint replacement operations. Pharmacol Toxicol 71(3 Pt 1):198–200

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • DeLeo PC, Ciarlo M, Pacelli C, Greggs W, Williams ES, Scott WC et al (2018) Cleaning product ingredient safety: what is the current state of availability of information regarding ingredients in products and their function? ACS Sustain Chem Eng 6(2):2094–2102

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dodd KE, Mazurek JM (2016) Asthma among employed adults, by industry and occupation – 21 states, 2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65(47):1325–1331

    Google Scholar 

  • Dumas O, Varraso R, Boggs KM, Descatha A, Henneberger PK, Quinot C et al (2018) Association of hand and arm disinfection with asthma control in US nurses. Occup Environ Med 75(5):378–381

    Google Scholar 

  • Eldeirawi K, Huntington-Moskos L, Nyenhuis SM, Polivka B (2021) Increased disinfectant use among adults with asthma in the era of COVID-19. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9(3):1378–1380.e2

    Google Scholar 

  • Folletti I, Zock JP, Moscato G, Siracusa A (2014) Asthma and rhinitis in cleaning workers: a systematic review of epidemiological studies. J Asthma 51(1):18–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Gambhir RS, Singh G, Sharma S, Brar R, Kakar H (2011) Occupational health hazards in the current dental profession-a review. Mercury 81:82

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrido AN, House R, Lipszyc JC, Liss GM, Holness DL, Tarlo SM (2021) Cleaning agent usage in healthcare professionals and relationship to lung and skin symptoms. J Asthma 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/02770903.2021.1871740

  • Gerster FM, Vernez D, Wild PP, Hopf NB (2014) Hazardous substances in frequently used professional cleaning products. Int J Occup Environ Health 20(1):46–60

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • González Jara MA, Mora Hidalgo A, Avalos Gulin JC, LĂłpez Albiach M, Muñoz Ortiz L, Torán Monserrat P et al (2013) Exposure of health workers in primary health care to glutaraldehyde. J Occup Med Toxicol 8(1):31

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonzalez M, JĂ©gu J, Kopferschmitt MC, Donnay C, Hedelin G, Matzinger F et al (2014) Asthma among workers in healthcare settings: role of disinfection with quaternary ammonium compounds. Clin Exp Allergy 44(3):393–406

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gorman T, Dropkin J, Kamen J, Nimbalkar S, Zuckerman N, Lowe T et al (2013) Controlling health hazards to hospital workers. New Solut 23(Suppl):1–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagberg S, Ljungkvist G, Andreasson H, Karlsson S, BarregĂĄrd L (2005) Exposure to volatile methacrylates in dental personnel. J Occup Environ Hyg 2(6):302–306

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hawley B, Casey M, Virji MA, Cummings KJ, Johnson A, Cox-Ganser J (2017) Respiratory symptoms in hospital cleaning staff exposed to a product containing hydrogen peroxide, Peracetic acid, and acetic acid. Ann Work Expo Health 62(1):28–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Henn S, Boiano JM, Steege AL (2015) Precautionary practices of healthcare workers who disinfect medical and dental devices using high-level disinfectants. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 36(2):180–185

    Google Scholar 

  • Henriks-Eckerman ML, Alanko K, Jolanki R, Kerosuo H, Kanerva L (2001) Exposure to airborne methacrylates and natural rubber latex allergens in dental clinics. J Environ Monit 3(3):302–305

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hong Y-J, Huang Y-C, Lee I-L, Chiang C-M, Lin C, Jeng HA (2015) Assessment of volatile organic compounds and particulate matter in a dental clinic and health risks to clinic personnel. J Environ Sci Health A 50(12):1205–1214

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hori H, Yahata K, Fujishiro K, Yoshizumi K, Li D, Goto Y et al (2002) Personal exposure level and environmental ethylene oxide gas concentration in sterilization facilities of hospitals in Japan. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 17(9):634–639

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huslage K, Rutala WA, Sickbert-Bennett E, Weber DJ (2010) A quantitative approach to defining “high-touch” surfaces in hospitals. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 31(8):850–853

    Google Scholar 

  • ILO (2019) The future of work in the health sector. Working paper no 325. ILO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Ivanova K, Avota M (2016) Antineoplastic drugs: occupational exposure and side effects. Proc Latv Acad Sci Sect B 70(5):325–329

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jachuck SJ, Bound CL, Steel J, Blain PG (1989) Occupational hazard in hospital staff exposed to 2 per cent glutaraldehyde in an endoscopy unit. Occup Med 39(2):69–71. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/39.2.69

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jungbauer FHW, Steenstra FB, Groothoff JW, Coenraads PJ (2005) Characteristics of wet work in nurses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 78(3):248–251

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim TS, Kim HA, Heo Y, Park Y, Park CY, Roh YM (2002) Level of silica in the respirable dust inhaled by dental technicians with demonstration of respirable symptoms. Ind Health 40(3):260–265

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Knoeller GE, Mazurek JM, Moorman JE (2011) Work-related asthma among adults with current asthma in 33 states and DC: evidence from the Asthma Call-Back Survey, 2006–2007. Public Health Rep 126(4):603–611

    Google Scholar 

  • Koda S, Kumagai S, Ohara H (1999) Environmental monitoring and assessment of short-term exposures to hazardous chemicals of a sterilization process in hospital working environments. Acta Med Okayama 53(5):217–223

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leas BF, Sullivan N, Han JH, Pegues DA, Kaczmarek JL, Umscheid CA (2015) Environmental cleaning for the prevention of healthcare-associated infections. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBouf RF, Virji MA, Saito R, Henneberger PK, Simcox N, Stefaniak AB (2014) Exposure to volatile organic compounds in healthcare settings. Occup Environ Med 71(9):642–650

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBouf RF, Virji MA, Ranpara A, Stefaniak AB (2017) Air and surface sampling method for assessing exposures to quaternary ammonium compounds using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Ann Work Expo Health 61(6):724–736

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee T, Soo JC, LeBouf RF, Burns D, Schwegler-Berry D, Kashon M et al (2018) Surgical smoke control with local exhaust ventilation: experimental study. J Occup Environ Hyg 15(4):341–350

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leggat PA, Kedjarune U, Smith DR (2007) Occupational health problems in modern dentistry: a review. Ind Health 45(5):611–621

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leinster P, Baum JM, Baxter PJ (1993) An assessment of exposure to glutaraldehyde in hospitals: typical exposure levels and recommended control measures. Occup Environ Med 50(2):107–111

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lester JD, Hsu S, Ahmad CS (2012) Occupational hazards facing orthopedic surgeons. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ) 41(3):132–139

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Limchantra IV, Fong Y, Melstrom KA (2019) Surgical smoke exposure in operating room personnel: a review. JAMA Surg 154(10):960–967

    Google Scholar 

  • Luckhaupt SE, Dahlhamer JM, Ward BW, Sussell AL, Sweeney MH, Sestito JP et al (2013) Prevalence of dermatitis in the working population, United States, 2010 National Health Interview Survey. Am J Ind Med 56(6):625–634

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazurek JM, Weissman DN (2016) Occupational respiratory allergic diseases in healthcare workers. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 16(11):77

    Google Scholar 

  • Nayeb zadeh A, Dufresne A (1998) Chemical hazards in dental laboratories. Indoor Built Environ 7(3):146–155

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nazaroff WW, Weschler CJ (2004) Cleaning products and air fresheners: exposure to primary and secondary air pollutants. Atmos Environ 38(18):2841–2865

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NIOSH (2017a) Healthcare workers: chemical hazards. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/healthcare/chemical.html. Accessed 27 June 2021

  • NIOSH (2017b) Work-related lung disease surveillance system (eWoRLD). 2015/2017-866, 870, 882, 923. April 2, 2018. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Respiratory Health Division, Morgantown. Available at: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/eworld/Data/923

  • NIOSH (2020) Hazardous drug exposures in healthcare. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hazdrug/default.html. Accessed 27 June 2021

  • Norback D (1988) Skin and respiratory symptoms from exposure to alkaline glutaraldehyde in medical services. Scand J Work Environ Health 14(6):366–371

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norton P, Pinho P, Xará D, Pina F, Norton M (2020) Assessment of anesthetic gases in a central hospital. Porto Biomed J 5(4):e076

    Google Scholar 

  • Odabasi M (2008) Halogenated volatile organic compounds from the use of chlorine-bleach-containing household products. Environ Sci Technol 42(5):1445–1451

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • OSHA (2002) OSHA Hazard Information Bulletin: preventing adverse health effects from exposure to beryllium in dental laboratories. www.osha.gov/dts/hib/hib_data/hib20020419.pdf. Accessed 27 June 2021

  • OSHA (2021) Healthcare. https://www.osha.gov/healthcare. Accessed 15 June 2021

  • Pinheiro V, Pestana C, Pinho A, Antunes I, Gonçalo M (2018) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis caused by antibiotics in healthcare workers – relationship with non-immediate drug eruptions. Contact Dermatitis 78(4):281–286. https://doi.org/10.1111/cod.12960

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pisaniello DL, Gun RT, Tkaczuk MN, Nitshcke M, Crea J (1997) Glutaraldehyde exposures and symptoms among endoscopy nurses in South Australia. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 12(3):171–177

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poupeau C, Tanguay C, Caron NJ, Bussières JF (2018) Multicenter study of environmental contamination with cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, and methotrexate in 48 Canadian hospitals. J Oncol Pharm Pract 24(1):9–17

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Puskar MA, Hecker LH (1989) Field validation of passive dosimeters for the determination of employee exposures to ethylene oxide in hospital product sterilization facilities. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 50(1):30–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Quirce S, Barranco P (2010) Cleaning agents and asthma. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 20(7):542–550

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rautiainen P, Hyttinen M, Ruokolainen J, Saarinen P, Timonen J, Pasanen P (2019) Indoor air-related symptoms and volatile organic compounds in materials and air in the hospital environment. Int J Environ Health Res 29(5):479–488

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rideout K, Teschke K, Dimich-Ward H, Kennedy SM (2005) Considering risks to healthcare workers from glutaraldehyde alternatives in high-level disinfection. J Hosp Infect 59(1):4–11

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rutala WA, Weber DJ, Control, C. f. D (2008) Guideline for disinfection and sterilization in healthcare facilities. Centers for Disease Control (US). https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/47378

  • Rutala WA, Kanamori H, Gergen MF, Knelson LP, Sickbert-Bennett EE, Chen LF et al (2018) Enhanced disinfection leads to reduction of microbial contamination and a decrease in patient colonization and infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 39(9):1118–1121

    Google Scholar 

  • Saito R, Virji MA, Henneberger PK, Humann MJ, LeBouf RF, Stanton ML et al (2015) Characterization of cleaning and disinfecting tasks and product use among hospital occupations. Am J Ind Med 58(1):101–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Santarsiero A, Fuselli S, Piermattei A, Morlino R, De Blasio G, De Felice M et al (2009) Investigation of indoor air volatile organic compounds concentration levels in dental settings and some related methodological issues. Ann Ist Super Sanita 45(1):87–98

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schramm MWJ, Sheikh AJ, Chave-Cox R, McQuaid J, Whitty RCW, Ilyinskaya E (2021) Surgically generated aerosol and mitigation strategies: combined use of irrigation, respirators and suction massively reduces particulate matter aerosol. Acta Neurochirurgica 163:1819–1827. Accession Number: 34031774 PMCID: PMC8143442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00701-021-04874-4

  • Singer BC, Destaillats H, Hodgson AT, Nazaroff WW (2006) Cleaning products and air fresheners: emissions and resulting concentrations of glycol ethers and terpenoids. Indoor Air 16(3):179–191

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steinemann A (2015) Volatile emissions from common consumer products. Air Qual Atmos Health 8(3):273–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart E, Smith R (2017) Guidelines for selection and use of environmental surface disinfectants in healthcare. American Industrial Hygiene Association, Falls Church

    Google Scholar 

  • Su FC, Friesen MC, Stefaniak AB, Henneberger PK, LeBouf RF, Stanton ML et al (2018) Exposures to volatile organic compounds among healthcare workers: modeling the effects of cleaning tasks and product use. Ann Work Expo Health 62(7):852–870

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Su FC, Friesen MC, Humann M, Stefaniak AB, Stanton ML, Liang X et al (2019) Clustering asthma symptoms and cleaning and disinfecting activities and evaluating their associations among healthcare workers. Int J Hyg Environ Health 222(5):873–883

    Google Scholar 

  • Suleyman G, Alangaden G, Bardossy AC (2018) The role of environmental contamination in the transmission of nosocomial pathogens and healthcare-associated infections. Curr Infect Dis Rep 20(6):12

    Google Scholar 

  • Suojalehto H, Linström I, Henriks-Eckerman ML, Jungewelter S, Suuronen K (2011) Occupational asthma related to low levels of airborne methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) in orthopedic casting work. Am J Ind Med 54(12):906–910

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Svanes O, Bertelsen RJ, Lygre SHL, Carsin AE, Anto JM, Forsberg B et al (2018) Cleaning at home and at work in relation to lung function decline and airway obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 197(9):1157–1163

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarlo SM, Malo JL, de Blay F, Le Moual N, Henneberger P, Heederik D et al (2017) An official American Thoracic Society workshop report: presentations and discussion of the sixth Jack Pepys workshop on asthma in the workplace. Ann Am Thorac Soc 14(9):1361–1372

    Google Scholar 

  • Teschke K, Chow Y, Brauer M, Chessor E, Hirtle B, Kennedy SM et al (2002) Exposures and their determinants in radiographic film processing. AIHA J (Fairfax, Va) 63(1):11–21

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tluczkiewicz I, Bitsch A, Hahn S, Hahn T (2010) Emission of biocides from hospitals: comparing current survey results with European Union default values. Integr Environ Assess Manag 6(2):273

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai RJ, Boiano JM, Steege AL, Sweeney MH (2015) Precautionary practices of respiratory therapists and other health-care practitioners who administer aerosolized medications. Respir Care 60(10):1409–1417

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Den Berg-Dijkmeijer ML, Frings-Dresen MHW, Sluiter JK (2011) Risks and health effects in operating room personnel (Review). Work 39(3):331–344

    Google Scholar 

  • Varughese S, Ahmed R (2021) Environmental and occupational considerations of anesthesia: a narrative review and update. Anesth Analg 133:826–835

    Google Scholar 

  • Virji MA, Liang X, Su F-C, LeBouf RF, Stefaniak AB, Stanton ML et al (2019) Peaks, means, and determinants of real-time TVOC exposures associated with cleaning and disinfecting tasks in healthcare settings. Ann Work Expo Health 63(8):759–772

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver VM (1997) Chemical hazards in health care workers. Occupational Medicine (Philadelphia, Pa.), 01 Oct 1997, 12(4):655–667. PMID: 9353815

    Google Scholar 

  • Wellons SL, Trawick EG, Stowers MF, Jordan SLP, Wass TL (1998) Laboratory and hospital evaluation of four personal monitoring methods for glutaraldehyde in ambient air. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 59(2):96–103

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2006) Healthcare workers: a global profile. In: World health report, 2006. WHO, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Wieslander G, Norbäck D (2010) A field study on clinical signs and symptoms in cleaners at floor polish removal and application in a Swedish hospital. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 83(5):585–91. Accession Number: 202581312; 20407787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-010-0531-5

  • Yahata K, Fujishiro K, Hori H, Higashi T (2001) An investigation of symptoms in ethylene oxide sterilization workers in hospitals. J Occup Health 43(4):180–184

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida K, Bryant HE, Visser ND, Atiemo MA (1989) Determination of worker exposure to instantaneously emitted ethylene oxide in sterilization facilities. Appl Ind Hyg 4(7):166–170

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Disclaimer

The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the official position of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA

    M. Abbas Virji, Lauren N. Bowers & Ryan F. LeBouf

Authors
  1. M. Abbas Virji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lauren N. Bowers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ryan F. LeBouf
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. Abbas Virji .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University Department of Building Science, Beijing, Beijing, China

    Yinping Zhang

  2. Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA

    Philip K. Hopke

  3. Scientific and Technical Centre for Building (CSTB), Marne-La-Vallée, France

    Corinne Mandin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the U.S.; foreign copyright protection may apply

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Virji, M.A., Bowers, L.N., LeBouf, R.F. (2022). Inhalation and Skin Exposure to Chemicals in Hospital Settings. In: Zhang, Y., Hopke, P.K., Mandin, C. (eds) Handbook of Indoor Air Quality. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5155-5_60-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5155-5_60-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-10-5155-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-10-5155-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Earth and Environm. ScienceReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Earth and Environmental Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation