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Determining Skeletal Geometry

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Biomarkers in Bone Disease

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Abstract

Areal bone mineral density (aBMD), assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA), at the lumbar spine, total hip, or femoral neck is the single most important criterion for the diagnosis of osteoporosis, i.e., bone fragility, in postmenopausal women and in men aged 50 years old. However, technological and scientific advances during the last two decades have led to the realization that bone fragility and the associated risk of fracture are not solely determined by the aBMD. In response, the International Society for Clinical Densitometry has recently published a position paper on the relevance of the use of geometric bone measurements to estimate the risk of fracture using DXA and quantitative computed tomography (QCT).

The geometry of the skeleton is determined by the bone shape and size and can be quantified using measures that include (a) cross-sectional measures – areas, moments of inertia, radii, circumferences, and cortical thickness – and (b) other specific measures of proximal femur including hip axis length (HAL), neck-shaft angle (NSA), and femoral neck width (FNW). In general larger cross-sectional measures are associated with a smaller risk of bone fracture, while the larger specific measures of the proximal femur are associated with a greater risk of bone fracture. The current evidence concerning the geometry of the skeleton and risk of fracture is not equally conclusive for all measures. At this time, only HAL, derived from DXA, is recommended for evaluation of hip fracture risk in postmenopausal women. Cross-sectional measures or other specific measures of hip geometry parameters should not be used to assess fracture risk.

The risk of bone fracture is conditioned by the biomechanical characteristics of the bone structure in relation to forces resulting from axial mechanical loads, bending, and torsion. Bone fracture can be described as a structural failure due to a force higher than bone’s mechanical resistance. However loads applied during everyday movements, i.e., physical activity within physiological limits, are key determinant for the optimization of bone geometry even without improvements in aBMD. This is particularly the case during the years of growth. Other determinants of bone geometry include interethnic differences, age, and gender. Because these latter determinants are nonmodifiable, they have little potential for intervention at the level of skeletal phenotype.

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Abbreviations

aBMD:

Areal bone mineral density

AHA:

Advanced hip assessment

CSA:

Cross-sectional area

CSMI:

Cross-sectional moment of inertia

DXA:

Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry

FEA:

Finite element analysis

FNAL:

Femoral neck axis length

FNL:

Femoral neck length

FNW:

Femoral neck width

HAL:

Hip axis length

HSA:

Hip structural analysis

ISCD:

International Society for Clinical Densitometry

NSA:

Neck-shaft angle

PMI:

Polar moment of inertia

pQCT:

Peripheral quantitative computed tomography

QCT:

Quantitative computed tomography

vBMD:

Volumetric bone mineral density

Z:

Section modulus

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Exercise and Health Laboratory, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, 1495-688, Cruz Quebrada, Portugal

    Vera Zymbal & Fátima Baptista

  2. LAETA, IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1, 1049-001, Lisbon, Portugal

    Paulo Fernandes

  3. Department of Health and Human Physiology; Department of Epidemiology, University of Iowa, 130 E FH, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA

    Kathleen F. Janz

Authors
  1. Vera Zymbal
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  2. Fátima Baptista
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  3. Paulo Fernandes
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  4. Kathleen F. Janz
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Correspondence to Vera Zymbal , Fátima Baptista , Paulo Fernandes or Kathleen F. Janz .

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  1. Sciences Division, King's College, London, United Kingdom

    Victor R. Preedy

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Zymbal, V., Baptista, F., Fernandes, P., Janz, K.F. (2016). Determining Skeletal Geometry. In: Preedy, V. (eds) Biomarkers in Bone Disease. Biomarkers in Disease: Methods, Discoveries and Applications. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7745-3_47-1

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