Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Galactic Distance Scales

  • Reference work entry
Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems

Abstract

This chapter begins with a discussion of the basic methods of determining astronomical distances, particularly, trigonometrical, statistical, and pulsational parallaxes. It then summarizes the current state of the calibration of various classes of pulsating variables (Classical Cepheids, type-II Cepheids, RR Lyraes, Miras, and δ Sct and SX Phe stars). Work on other distance indicators (e.g., the red giant clump and the tip of the red giant branch) is also summarized. The use of spectroscopic parallaxes and their application to supergiants and common stars as well as the methods of determining the distances to open and globular clusters are discussed. To illustrate and compare different distance indicators, their use in estimating the scale length of our Galaxy, and the distance to Galactic centre as well as the distances to the LMC, the Fornax dwarf spheroidal, and the spiral galaxy NGC4258 is discussed in some detail. An appendix summarizes some common bias problems that arise in the calibration and use of distance indicators.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Miyamota and Zhu (1998) obtained somewhat larger values of A from Hipparcos proper motions of both OB stars and Cepheids. This may be at least partly due to the fact that the velocity dispersions of the stars do not seem to have been taken into account in their weighting procedure.

  2. 2.

    The procedure followed by the Sandage group (e.g., Saha et al. 2006) is to use observed PL relations at V and I separately and to combine them to obtain reddening-free distance moduli. This is obviously equivalent in principle to using a relation in W VI .

  3. 3.

    In the case of near-infrared photometry, there are appreciable differences between different filter systems (see, e.g., Carpenter 2001).

  4. 4.

    This is in the “T e ” abundance system. In application, it is essential to ensure that adopted metallicities are as close to this system as possible.

  5. 5.

    The photometry is in the system of the IRSF survey (Kato et al. 2007) which is close to the 2MASS system.

  6. 6.

    Anomalous Cepheids which lie between the Classical and type II Cepheids in PL diagrams have not, so far, been studied in detail as possible distance indicators.

  7. 7.

    The value of α obtained in a consistent manner from pulsation parallaxes may well be satisfactory, though the derived absolute magnitudes may be affected by systematic errors (see below).

  8. 8.

    Benedict et al. also give an alternative solution involving the application of a Lutz-Kelker bias correction (see Sect. A.4).

  9. 9.

    Full light curves of Miras at wavelengths longer than ∼​ 3. 5 μm are rare, and bolometric magnitudes are often derived using bolometric corrections to K, based on colors. Such magnitudes may contain systematic errors but are valuable as distance indicators so long as they are derived consistently.

  10. 10.

    According to Riess et al. (2009), unpublished data reduce this standard error to ∼​ 0. 07.

  11. 11.

    Feast and Catchpole (1997) obtained 18. 70 ± 0. 10 for the LMC modulus from the initial release of Hipparcos parallaxes and B, V data of Galactic and LMC Cepheids. The difference from the present value is primarily due to the improvement in LMC data (mainly due to OGLE) and the possibility of using V, I photometry. The new trigonometrical parallaxes, although more accurate than those used in 1997, are not systematically different.

References

  • Alloin, D., & Gieren, W., eds. 2003, Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale (Berlin: Springer)

    Google Scholar 

  • An, D., Terdrup, D. M., & Pinsonneault, M. H. 2007, The distances of open clusters from main sequence fitting. IV. Galactic Cepheids, the LMC, and the local distance scale, ApJ, 671, 1640–1668

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Arp, H. C. 1956, Novae in the Andromeda nebula, AJ, 61, 15–34

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Balona, L., & Crampton, D. 1974, The Hγ-absolute magnitude calibration, MN, 166, 203–217

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellazzini, M. 2008, The tip of the red giant branch, Mem Soc Ast It, 79, 440–447

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Benedict, G. F., & McArthur, B. E. 2004, High-precision stellar parallaxes from the Hubble Space Telescope fine guidance sensors, in Transits of Venus; New Views of the Solar System and the Galaxy, eds. D. W. Kurtz et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 333–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedict, G. F., et al. 2007, Hubble space telescope fine guidance sensor parallaxes of galactic cepheid variables, AJ, 133, 1810–1827

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Benedict, G. F., et al. 2011, Calibrating the distance scale with Galactic RR Lyrae star parallaxes, AJ, 142:187

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bird, J. C., Stanek, K. Z., & Prieto, J. L. 2009, Using ultra long period Cepheids to extend the cosmic distance ladder to 10 Mpc and beyond, ApJ, 695, 874–882

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Blaauw, A. 1963, The calibration of luminosity criteria, in Basic Astronomical Data, ed. K. Aa. Strand (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 383–420

    Google Scholar 

  • Blommaert, J. A. D. L., et al. 1998, The nature of OH/IR stars in the Galactic Centre, A&A, 329, 991–1009

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Borissova, J., et al. 2009, Properties of RR lyrae stars in the inner regions of the Large Magellanic Cloud. A&A, 502, 505–514

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Bresolin, F. 2003, Blue supergiants as tools for extragalactic distances – empirical diagnostics, in Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale, eds. D. Alloin, W. Gieren (Berlin: Springer), 149–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, A. G. A., et al. 2000, OB associations the Hipparcos view, in Star Formation from the Small to the Large Scale, eds. Favata et al. (ESA SP-445, Paris: European Space Agency), 239–248

    Google Scholar 

  • Cacciari, C., & Clementini, G. 2003, Globular cluster distances from RR Lyrae stars, in Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale, eds. D. Alloin, W. Gieren (Berlin: Springer), 105–122

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, J. M. 2001, Color transformations for the 2MASS second incremental data release, AJ, 121, 2851–2871, and later versions in http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/2mass/

  • Carretta, E., et al. 2000, Distances, ages and epoch of formation of globular clusters, ApJ, 533, 215–235

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Cioni, M. R., et al. 2000, The tip of the red giant branch distance of the Magellanic Clouds: Results from the DENIS survey, A&A, 359, 601–614

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Clausen, J. V. 2004, Eclipsing binaries as precise standard candles, New Ast Rev, 48, 679–685

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Clausen, J. V., et al. 2003, Eclipsing binaries in the Magellanic Clouds. uvby CCD light curves and photometric analyses for HV982(LMC), HV12578(LMC),HV1433(SMC) and HV11284(SMC), A&A, 402, 509–530

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Clementini, G., et al. 2005, The metal abundance distribution of the oldest stellar component in the Sculptor dwarf spheroidal galaxy, MN, 363, 734–748

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, D. L. 1978, Empirical calibrations of the uvby systems. II. The B-type stars, AJ, 83, 48–63

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Dall’Ora, M., et al. 2004, The distance of the LMC cluster Reticulum from the K-band period-luminosity-metallicity relation of RR Lyrae stars, ApJ, 610, 269–274

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Dambis, A. K. 2009, The kinematics and zero-point of the logP − < M K > relation for Galactic RR Lyrae variables via statistical parallax, MN, 396, 553–569

    Google Scholar 

  • Degl’Innocenti, S., et al. 2004, The 14 N(p, γ)15 O reaction, solar neutrinos and the age of globular clusters, PhLB, 590, 13–20

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Dehnen, W., & Binney, J. J. 1998, Local stellar kinematics from Hipparcos data, MN, 298, 387–394

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Delhaye, J. 1965, Solar motion and velocity distribution of common stars, in Galactic Structure, eds. A. Blaauw, M. Schmidt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 61–84

    Google Scholar 

  • de Zeeuw, P. T., et al. 1999, A Hipparcos census of the nearby OB associations, AJ, 117, 354–399

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Di Benedetto, G. P. 2008, The Cepheid distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud and NGC4258 by surface brightness technique and improved calibration of the cosmic distance scale, MN, 390, 1762–1776

    Google Scholar 

  • Downes, R. A., & Duerbeck, H. W. 2000, Optical imaging of nova shells and the maximum magnitude-rate of decline relationship, AJ, 120, 2007–2037

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Eddington, A. S. 1914, Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe (London: Macmillan), 172

    Google Scholar 

  • Eyre, A., & Binney, J. 2009, Fitting orbits to tidal streams with proper motions, MN, 399, L160–L163

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W., & Thackeray, A. D. 1958, Analysis of radial velocities of distant B-type stars, MN, 118, 125–153

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W., & Shuttleworth, M. 1965, The kinematics of B stars, Cepheids, Galactic Clusters and interstellar gas in the Galaxy, MN, 130, 245–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 1972, A problem in distance determination for Mira variables with an Appendix on OB-star distances, Vistas Astron, 13, 207–221

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W., & Walker, A. R. 1987, Cepheids as distance indicators, ARAA, 25, 345–375

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W., & Catchpole, R. M. 1997, The Cepheid period-luminosity zero-point from Hipparcos trigonometrical parallaxes, MN, 286, L1–L5

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W., & Whitelock, P. A. 1997, Galactic kinematics of Cepheids from Hipparcos proper motions, MNRAS, 291, 683–693

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 1999a, Pulsating stars in globular clusters and their use, in Globular Clusters, eds. C. Roger Martínez et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University press), 251–290

    Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 1999b, Cepheids as distance indicators, PASP, 111, 775–793

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 2000, The local solar motion and the scale length of the Galactic disc, MN, 313, 596–598

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 2002, Bias in absolute magnitude determination from parallaxes, MN, 337, 1035–1037

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 2003, Current uncertainties in the use of Cepheids as distance indicators, in Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale, eds. D. Alloin, W. Gieren (Berlin: Springer), 45–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W., Whitelock, P. A. & Menzies, J. W. 2006, Carbon-rich Mira variables: kinematics and absolute magnitudes, MN, 369, 791–797

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. et al. 2008, The luminosities and distance scales of type II Cepheid and RR Lyrae variables, MN, 386, 2115–2134

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Feast, M. W. 2009, The ages, masses, evolution and kinematics of Mira variables, in Nat. Obs. Jap. Tokyo. AGB variables and related phenomena Tokyo, eds. T. Ueta et al. (ArXiv:0812.0250), 48–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernie, J. D. 1969, The period-luminosity relation: A historical review, PASP, 81, 707–731

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Fernley, J., et al. 1998, The absolute magnitudes of RR Lyraes from Hipparcos parallaxes and proper motions, A&A, 330, 515–520

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferraro, F., et al. 2000, A new infrared array survey of galactic globular clusters AJ, 119, 1282–1295

    Google Scholar 

  • FitzPatrick, E. L., et al. 2003, Fundamental properties and distances of the Large Magellanic Cloud eclipsing binaries. IV. HV5936, ApJ, 587, 685–700

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Fouqué, P., et al. 2007, A new calibration of Galactic Cepheid period-luminosity relations from B to K bands, and a comparison to LMC relations, A&A, 476, 73–81

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Fusi Pecci, F., et al. 1996, The M V HB versus [Fe/H] calibration. I. HST colour-magnitude diagrams of eight globular clusters in M31, AJ, 112, 1461–1471

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, B. 1989, A list of MK standard stars. Bull inf, CDS, 36, 27–90

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ghez, A. M., et al. 2008, Measuring distance and properties of the Milky Way’s central supermassive black hole with stellar orbits, ApJ, 689, 1044–1062

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillessen, S., et al. 2009a, Monitoring stellar orbits around the massive black hole in the Galactic Centre, ApJ, 692, 1075–1109

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillessen, S., et al. 2009b, The orbit of the star S2 around SgrA* from the VLT and Keck data, ApJ, 707, L114–L117

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmozzi, R., & Della Valle, M. 2003, Novae as distance indicators, in Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale, eds. D. Alloin, W. Gieren (Berlin: Springer), 229–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Gingold, R. 1985, The evolutionary status of type II Cepheids, Mem Soc Ast It, 56, 169–192

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Girardi, L. 1999, A secondary clump of red giant stars: Why and where, MN, 308, 818–832

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Girardi, L., & Salaris, M. 2001, Population effects on the red giant clump absolute magnitude, and distance determination to nearby galaxies, MN, 323, 109–129

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Girardi, L., Rubele, S., & Kerber, L. 2009, Discovery of two distinct red clumps in NGC419: a rare snapshot of a cluster at the onset of degeneracy, MN, 394, L74–L78

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, I. S., & Feast, M. W. 1982, Infrared photometry of Mira variables in the Baade windows and the distance to the Galactic Centre, MN, 198, 199–214

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, I. S., et al. 1995, Long-period variables in the SgrI field of the Galactic Bulge, MN, 273, 383–400

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, I. S., & Lloyd Evans, T. 2003, The calibrating stars of the Mira P-L relation, MN, 343, 67–74

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gratton, R. G., et al. 2003, Distances and ages of NGC6397, NGC6752 and 47 Tuc, A&A, 408, 529–543

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gratton, R. G., et al. 2004, Metal abundances of RR Lyrae stars in the bar of the Large Magellanic Cloud, A&A, 421, 937–952

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Grocholski, A. J., et al. 2007, Distances of populous clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud via K-band luminosity of the red clump, AJ, 134, 680–693

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Groenewegen, M. A. T., Udalski, A., & Bono, G. 2008, The distance of the Galactic Centre based on population II Cepheids and RR Lyrae stars, A&A, 481, 441–448

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Groenewegen, M. A. T. 2008, The red clump absolute magnitude based on revised Hipparcos parallaxes, A&A, 488, 935–941

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Gullieuszik, M., et al. 2007, Near-infrared observations of the Fornax dwarf galaxy. I. The red giant branch, A&A, 467, 1025–1036

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. B. 1979, A practical method to improve luminosity calibrations from trigonometric parallaxes, MN, 186, 875–896

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Hendry, M. A., O’dell, M. A., & Collier-Cameron, A. 1993, A new method for estimating the distance of young open clusters, MN, 265, 983–995

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Herrnstein, J. R., et al. 1999, A geometric distance to the galaxy NGC4258 from orbital motions in a nuclear gas disc, Nat, 400, 539–541

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Holmberg, J., Nordström, B., & Andersen, J., 2007, The Geneva-Copenhagen survey of the solar neighbourhood II, A&A, 475, 519–537

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Imbriani, G., et al. 2004, The bottleneck of CNO burning and the age of the globular clusters, A&A, 420, 625–629

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ita, Y., et al. 2004, Variable stars in the Magellanic Clouds; Results from OGLE and Sirius, MN, 347, 720–728

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ivezic, Z., et al. 2008, LSST: From science drivers to reference design and anticipated products, astro-ph/0805.2366

    Google Scholar 

  • Jurcevic, J. S., Pierce, M. J., & Jacoby, G. H. 2000, Period-luminosity relations for red supergiant variable-II. The distance of M101, MN, 313, 868–880

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Juríc, M., et al. 2008, The Milky Way Tomography with SDSS. I. Stellar number density distribution, ApJ, 673, 864–914

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Karovska, M., et al. 1991, Asymmetries in the atmosphere of Mira, ApJ, 374, L51–L54

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Kato, D., et al. 2007, The IRSF Magellanic Cloud point source catalogue, PASJ, 59, 615–641

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, F. J., & Lynden Bell, D. 1986, Review of Galactic constants, MN, 221, 1023–1038

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Kinman, T. D., Mould, J. R., & Wood, P. R. 1987, Variable stars in local group galaxies. I-M33, AJ, 93, 833–850

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Klement, R. et al. 2009, Halo streams in the seventh Sloan digital sky survey data release, ApJ, 698, 865–894

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Koen, C. 1992, Confidence intervals for the Lutz-Kelker correction, MN, 256, 65–68

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Koen, C., & Laney, D. 1998, On the determination of absolute magnitude zero-points from Hipparcos parallaxes, MN, 301, 582–584

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Kudritzki, R.-P., & Przybilla, N. 2003, Blue supergiants as tools for extragalactic distances – theoretical concepts, in Stellar Candles for the Extragalactic Distance Scale, eds. D. Alloin, W. Gieren (Berlin: Springer), 123–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Lacour, S., et al. 2009, The pulsation of χ Cygni imaged by optical interferometry: A novel technique to derive distance and mass of Mira stars, arXiv:0910.3869

    Google Scholar 

  • Laney, C. D., & Stobie, R. S. 1995, The radii of Galactic Cepheids, MN, 274, 337–360

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Laney, C. D., Joner, M. D., & Pietrzynski, G. 2011, A new LMC K band distance from precision measurements of nearby red clump stars. MN in press (ArXiv:1109.4800)

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, B. F., et al. 2002, Long-baseline interferometric observations of Cepheids, ApJ, 573, 330–337

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Lattanzi, M. G., et al. 1997, Interferometric angular diameters of Mira variables with the Hubble Space Telescope, ApJ, 485, 328–332

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Layden, A. C. 1999, Absolute magnitudes derived using the statistical parallax method. In Post-Hipparcos Cosmic Candles, in eds. A. Heck, & F. Caputo (Dordrecht: Kluwer), 37–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Leavitt, H. A., & Pickering, E. C. 1912, Periods of 25 variables in the Small Magellanic Cloud, Harv Obs Circ, 173, p1–p3

    Google Scholar 

  • Letarte, B., et al. 2006, VLT/UVES spectroscopy of individual stars in three globular clusters in the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy, A&A, 453, 547–554

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindegren, L., et al. 2008, The Gaia mission: science, organization and present status, in IAU Symp. 248, 217–223

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Longmore, A. J., Fernley, J. A., & Jameson, R. F. 1986, RR Lyrae stars in globular clusters- Better distances from infrared measurements? MN, 220, 279–287

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutz, T. E., & Kelker, D. H. 1973, On the use of trigonometrical parallaxes for the calibration of luminosity systems: Theory, PASP, 85, 573–578

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackey, A. D., & Gilmore, G. 2003, RR Lyrae stars in four globular clusters in the Fornax dwarf galaxy, MN, 345, 747–761

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Macri, L. M., et al. 2006, A new Cepheid distance to the maser-host galaxy NGC 4258 and its implications for the Hubble constant, ApJ, 652, 1133–1149

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Madore, B. F., & Freedman, W. L. 1995, The tip of the red giant branch as a distance indicator for resolved galaxies. 2. Computer simulations, AJ, 109, 1645–1652

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Makarov, D., et al. 2006, Tip of the red giant branch distances. I. Optimization of a maximum likelihood algorithm, AJ, 132, 2729–2742

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Malmquist, K. G. 1920, A study of the stars of spectral type A, Lund Medd Ser II, 22, 1–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsunaga, N., et al. 2006, The period-luminosity relation for type II Cepheids in globular clusters, MN, 370, 1979–1990

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsunaga, N., et al. 2009a, Period-luminosity relations for type II Cepheids and their application, MN, 397, 933–942

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsunaga, N., et al. 2009b, A near-infrared survey of Miras and the distance to the Galactic Centre, MN, 399, 1709–1729

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Matsunaga, N., et al. 2011, Three classical Cepheid variable stars in the nuclear bulge of the milky way, Nature, 477, 188–190

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • McMillan, P. J., & Binney, J. J. 2010, The uncertainties in Galactic parameters, MNRAS, 402, 934

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, D. H. 1999, The slope of the RR Lyrae variables M v f([Fe/H]) relation, PASP, 111, 489–493

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • McNamara, D. H., Clementini, G., & Marconi, M. 2007, A δ Sct distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud, AJ, 133, 2752–2763

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, R. C., et al. 2002, Detailed spectroscopic analysis of SN1987A: The distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud using the spectral-fitting expanding atmosphere method, ApJ, 574, 293–305

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Mihalas, D. 1968, Galactic Astronomy (Chap. 6; San Francisco: Freeman and Co.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyamota, M., & Zhu, Z. 1998, Galactic interior motions derived from Hipparcos proper motions. I. young disk population, AJ, 115, 1483–1491

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, W. W., Keenan, P. C., & Kellman, E. 1943, An Atlas of Stellar Spectra (Chicago: University of Chicago Press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, W. W., Whitford, A. E., & Code, A. D. 1953, Studies in Galactic structure. I. A preliminary determination of the space distribution of blue supergiants, ApJ, 118, 318–322

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, W. W., & Keenan, P. C. 1973, Spectral classification, ARAA, 11, 29–50

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Murray, C. A. 1983, Vectorial Astrometry (Bristol: Hilger)

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakagawa, A., et al. 2009, Period-luminosity relation of the Galactic Mira variables measured with Vera, in eds. T. Ueta et al. Tokyo. AGB stars and related phenomena, 58–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Ngeow, C.-C., & Kanbur, S. M. 2005, The linearity of the Wesenheit function for the Large Magellanic Cloud Cepheids, MN, 360, 1033–1039

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Ngeow, C.-C., et al. 2005, Further empirical evidence for the non-linearity of the period-luminosity relations as seen in the Large Magellanic Cloud Cepheids, MN, 363, 831–846

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Nishiyama, S., et al. 2006, The distance of the Galactic centre derived from infrared photometry of Bulge clump stars, ApJ, 647, 1093–1098

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Paczyński, B., & Stanek, K. Z. 1998, Galactocentric distance with the OGLE and Hipparcos red clump stars, ApJ, 494, L219–L222

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagia, N., et al. 1991, Properties of the SN1987A circumstellar ring and the distance to the large Magellanic Cloud, ApJ, 380, L23–L26; Erratum, 1992, ApJ, 386, L31–L32

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Panagia, N. 2005, A geometric determination of the distance to SN1987A and the LMC, in, Cosmic Explosions, ed. J.-M. Marcaide & K. W. Weiler (Berlin: Springer) 585–592

    Google Scholar 

  • Perryman, M., et al. 1998, The Hyades: distance, structure, dynamics and age, A&A, 331, 81–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Perryman, M. 2003, The GAIA mission, in ASP Conf. Ser. 298, GAIA Spectroscopy, Science and Technology, ed. U. Munari, 3–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Perryman, M. 2009, Astronomical Applications of Astrometry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Persson, S. E., et al. 2004, New Cepheid period-luminosity relations for the Large Magellanic Cloud: 92 near-infrared light curves, AJ, 128, 2239–2264

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzyński, G., Gieren, W., & Udalski, A. 2003, The Araucaria project. Dependence of mean K, J and I absolute magnitudes of red clump stars on metallicity and age, AJ, 125, 2494–2501

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzyński, G., et al. 2009a, The Araucaria project. Infrared tip of red giant branch distances to the Carina and Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxies, AJ, 138, 459–465

    Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzyński, G., et al. 2009b, The Araucaria project. Determination of the Large Magellanic Cloud distance from late type eclipsing binary systems. I. OGLE-051019.64-685812.3, ApJ, 697, 862–866

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Pont, F., Mayor, M., & Burki, G., et al. 1994, New radial velocities for classical Cepheids. Local Galactic rotation revisited, A&A, 285, 415–439

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Pont, F. 1999, The Cepheid distance scale after Hipparcos, in ASP Conf. Ser. 167, Harmonizing Cosmic Distance Scales in a Post-Hipparcos Era, eds. D. Egret, A. Heck, 113–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Pont, F., et al. 2004, The chemical enrichment history of the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy from the infrared calcium triplet, AJ, 127, 840–860

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Popowski, P., & Gould, G. 1998a, Systematics of RR Lyrae statistical parallax. I. Mathematics, ApJ, 506, 259–270

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Popowski, P., & Gould, A. 1998b, Systematics of RR Lyrae statistical parallax.II. Proper motions and radial velocities, ApJ, 506, 271–280

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Popowski, P., & Gould, A. 1998c, Systematics of RR Lyrae statistical parallax. III. Apparent magnitudes and extinctions, ApJ, 508, 844–853

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Poretti, E., et al. 2008, Variable stars in the Fornax dSph galaxy. II. Pulsating stars below the horizontal branch, ApJ, 685, 947–957

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Pritzl, B. J., et al. 2003, Hubble Space Telescope snapshot study of variable stars in globular clusters. The inner region of NGC6441, AJ, 126, 1381–1401

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, M. J., et al. 2009a, Trigonometric parallaxes of massive star-forming regions. VI. Galactic structure, fundamental parameters, and non-circular motions, ApJ, 700, 137–148

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, M. J., et al. 2009b, A trigonometrical parallax of Sgr B2, ApJ, 705, 1548–1553

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rejkuba, M. 2004, The distance to the giant elliptical galaxy NGC 5128, A&A, 413, 903–912

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rejkuba, M., Minniti, D., & Silva, D. R. 2003, Long period variables in NGC5128. I. Catalogue, A&A, 406, 75–85

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rich, R. M., & Origlia, L. 2005, The first detailed abundances for M giants in Baade’s window from infrared spectroscopy, ApJ, 634, 1293–1299

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Riess, A. G., et al. 2009, A redetermination of the Hubble constant with the HubbleSpaceTelescope from a differential distance ladder, ApJ, 699, 539–563

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzi, L. et al. 2007a, Tip of the red giant branch distances. II. Zero-point calibration, ApJ, 661, 815–829

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzi, L., et al. 2007b, The distance of the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy, MN, 380, 1255–1260

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Saha, A., et al. 2006, Cepheid distances to SNIa host galaxies based on a revised photometric zero point of the HST WFPC2 and new PL relations and metallicity corrections, ApJSup, 165, 108–137

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai, S., Madore, B. F., & Freedman, W. L. 1996, Tip of the red giant branch distances to Galaxies III, ApJ, 461, 713–723

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakai, S., Zaritsky, D., & Kennicutt, R. C. 2000, The tip of the red giant branch distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud, AJ, 119, 1197–1204

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Salaris, M., & Girardi, L. 2002, Population effects on the red giant clump absolute magnitude: the K band, MN, 337, 332–340

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Salaris, M., & Girardi, L. 2005, Tip of the red giant branch distances to galaxies with composite stellar populations, MN, 357, 669–678

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Salaris, M., et al. 2001, On the white dwarf distances to galactic globular clusters, A&A, 371, 921–931

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Salaris, M., Cassisi, S., & Weiss, A. 2002, Red giant branch stars: The theoretical framework, PASP, 114, 375–402

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sale, S. E., et al. 2010, The structure of the outer Galactic disc as revealed by IPHAS early A stars, MN, 402, 713–723

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A. 1958, Current problems in the extragalactic scale, ApJ, 127, 513–526

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A., & Tammann, G. A. 1969, The double Cepheid CE Cassiopeiae in NGC 7790: Tests of the theory of the instability strip and the calibration of the period-luminosity relation, ApJ, 157, 683–708

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A. 1972, Classical Cepheids: Cornerstones to extragalactic distances? QJRAS, 13, 202–221

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A. 1990, The vertical height of the horizontal branch - the range in the absolute magnitudes of RR Lyrae stars in a given globular clusters, ApJ, 350, 603–630

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A. 1994a, Bias properties of extragalactic distance indicators. I, ApJ, 430, 1–12

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A. 1994b, Bias properties of extragalactic distance indicators. II, ApJ, 430, 13–28

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sandage, A., & Tammann, G. A. 2006, Absolute magnitude calibrations of populations I and II Cepheids and other pulsating variables in the instability strip of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, ARAA, 44, 93–140

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Saviane, I., Held, E. V., & Bertelli, G. 2000, The stellar populations of the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy, A&A, 355, 56–68

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Schechter, P. L. 1980, Mass-to-light ratios for elliptical galaxies, AJ, 85, 801–811

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt-Kaler, Th. 1982, Physical parameters of the stars, in Landolt-Börnstein New series Group VI, Vol 2b, 1, eds. K. Schaifers, H. H. Voigt (Berlin: Springer-Verlag)

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapley, H. 1938, Two stellar systems of a new kind, Nature, 142, 715–716

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, M. H., et al. 2002, Star counts redivivus. IV. Density laws through photometric parallaxes, ApJ, 578, 151–175

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H. A. 1995, RR Lyrae stars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H. 2003, Is there really a Lutz-Kelker bias? Reconsidering calibration with trigonometrical parallaxes, MN, 338, 891–902

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H. 2006, Beware λ-truncation! Sample truncation and bias in luminosity calibration using trigonometric parallaxes, MN, 365, 469–476

    Google Scholar 

  • Sollima, A., Cacciari, C., & Valenti, E. 2006, The RR Lyrae period-K luminosity relation for globular clusters;an observational approach, MN, 372, 1675–1680

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Soszyński, I., et al. 2003, The optical gravitational lensing experiment, catalog of RR Lyrae variables in the Large Magellanic Cloud, AcA, 53, 93–116

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Soszyński, I., et al. 2008, The optical gravitational lensing experiment. The OGLE-III Catalog of Variable Stars II, AcA, 58, 293–312

    Google Scholar 

  • Spaenhauer, A. M. 1978, A systematic comparison of four methods to derive stellar space densities, AA, 65, 313–321

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Sterken, C., & Jaschek, C. 1996, Light Curves of Variable Stars (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Strand, K. Aa. 1963, Trigonometric stellar parallaxes, in Basic Astronomical Data, ed. K. Aa. Strand (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 55–63

    Google Scholar 

  • Szewczyk, O., et al. 2008, The Araucaria project. The distance of the Large Magellanic Cloud from near-infrared photometry of RR Lyrae variables, AJ, 136, 272–279

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabur, V., Kiss, L. L., & Bedding, T. R. 2009, Hipparcos calibration of the tip of the red giant branch, ApJ, 703, L73–L75

    Google Scholar 

  • Teerikorpi, P. 1997, Observational selection bias affecting the determination of the extragalactic distance scale, ARAA, 35, 101–136

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Tolstoy, E., et al. 2003, VLT/EVES abundances in four nearby dwarf spheroidal galaxies. II. Implications for understanding galaxy evolution, AJ, 125, 707–726

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Udalski, A., Kubiak, M., & Szymanski, M., 1997, Optical gravitational lensing experiment OGLE2, AcA, 47, 319–344

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Udalski, A., et al. 1999, The optical gravitational lensing experiment. Cepheids in the Magellanic Clouds, AcA, 49, 201–221

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Bergh, A. 1975, The extragalactic distance scale, in Galaxies and the Universe, eds. A. Sandage et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 509–539

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kruit, P. C. 2000, The Milky Way compared to other galaxies, in The legacy of J C Kapteyn, eds. P. C. van der Kruit, K. van Berkel (Dordrecht: Kluwer), 229–323

    Google Scholar 

  • van Langevelde, H. J., van der Heiden, R., & van Schooneveld, C. 1990, Phase lags from multiple flux curves of OH/IR stars, A&A, 239, 193–204

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • van Leeuwen, F. 2007, Hipparcos, the new reduction of the raw data (Berlin: Springer)

    Google Scholar 

  • van Leeuwen, F., et al. 1997, First results from Hipparcos trigonometrical parallaxes of Mira-type variables, MN, 287, 955–960

    Google Scholar 

  • van Leeuwen, et al. 2007, Cepheid parallaxes and the Hubble constant, MN, 379, 723–737

    Google Scholar 

  • van Leeuwen, F. 2009, Parallaxes and proper motions for 20 open clusters as based on the new Hipparcos catalogue, A&A, 497, 209–242

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Vlemmings, W. H. T., et al. 2003, VLBI astrometry of circumstellar OH masers: Proper motions and parallaxes for four AGB stars, A&A, 407, 213–224

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Vlemmings, W. H. T., & van Langeveldt, H. J. 2007, Improved VLBI astrometry of OH maser stars, A&A, 472, 547–553

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Wallerstein, G. et al. 1992, Metallic-line and Hα radial velocities of seven southern Cepheids – A comparative analysis, MN, 259, 474–488

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, W. 2006, Absolute magnitudes of OB and Be stars based on Hipparcos parallaxes - II, MN, 371, 185–192

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Wegner, W. 2007, Absolute magnitudes of OB and Be stars based on Hipparcos parallaxes - III [Note. This title is erroneous], MN, 374, 1549–1556

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitelock, P. A., & Catchpole, R. M. 1992, The shape of the Bulge from IRAS Miras, in The Center, Bulge and Disc of the Milky Way, ed. L. Blitz (Dordrecht: Kluwer), 103–110

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitelock, P. A., & Feast, M. W. 2000, Hipparcos parallaxes for Mira-like long period variables, MN, 319, 759–770

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitelock, P. A., Feast, M. W., & Catchpole, R. M. 1991, IRAS sources and the nature of the Galactic Bulge, MN, 248, 276–312

    ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitelock, et al. 2003, Obscured asymptotic giant branch variables in the Large Magellanic Cloud and the period-luminosity relation, MN, 342, 86–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitelock, P. A., Feast, M. W., & van Leeuwen, F., 2008, AGB variables and the Mira period-luminosity relation, MN, 386, 313–323

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitelock, P. A., et al. 2009, Asymptotic giant branch stars in the Fornax dwarf spheroidal galaxy, MN, 394, 795–809

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, P. R. 2000, Variable red giants in the LMC, Pulsating stars and binaries? PASA, 17, 18–21

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, P. R., Bessell, M. S., & Fox, M. W. 1983, Long period variables in the Magellanic Clouds - supergiants, AGB stars, supernovae precursors, planetary nebulae precursors, enrichment of the interstellar medium, ApJ, 272, 99–115

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Astronomy Department and Astrophysics, Cosmology and Gravity Centre, University of Cape Town and South African Astronomical Observatory, Private Bag X3, 7701, Rondebosch, South Africa

    Prof. Michael W. Feast

Authors
  1. Prof. Michael W. Feast
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physics & Space Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, University Boulevard, Melbourne, FL, USA

    Terry D. Oswalt

  2. Institute of Astronomy, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK

    Gerard Gilmore

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this entry

Cite this entry

Feast, M.W. (2013). Galactic Distance Scales. In: Oswalt, T.D., Gilmore, G. (eds) Planets, Stars and Stellar Systems. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5612-0_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation