Abstract
In constructing warning messages, analytic-cognitive factors have traditionally been stressed: having script and/or images of sufficient size and legibility which show dangerous consequences and communicate how they can be avoided and safety maintained. Emotional, or affective-cognitive, factors have rarely been considered in the design of warnings. Indeed, employing emotional appeals to persuade an audience is widely regarded to be unethical, smacking of manipulation. However, emotional factors have been employed with great effectiveness in advertising and marketing, sometimes to actually weaken legitimate safety concerns. Advertisements for dangerous products routinely ignore risk or if required present warning information in a form that is easily overlooked or disregarded. However, emerging research on decision-making has found that emotion plays a critical role in reaching optimal conclusions. It is now recognized that emotional or affective-cognitive factors can influence judgment processes in many ways. First, there are immediate emotions involved in the decision itself, and the emotions anticipated to flow from the decision. Second, there are emotions intrinsic to the decision that may be evoked by the message itself, and emotions incidental to the decision that nevertheless may influence the outcome. Third, emotion can influence the degree of rationality or mindfulness in the deliberation itself. Effective warnings must command attention, stimulate memory, and evoke emotion, as well as communicate consequences and safe behavior. In addition, to construct effective warnings, one must recognize the emotions that people are likely to experience in dangerous situations, and help them to understand those feelings and desires in a context of mindfully managing risk.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Ahern G, Schwartz G (1979) Differential lateralization for positive versus negative emotion. Neuropsychologia 17:693–698
Alhakami AS, Slovic P (1994) A psychological study of the inverse relationship between perceived risk and perceived benefit. Risk Anal 14:1085–1096
American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn, revised. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
Andrande EB, Ariely D (2009) The enduring impact of transient emotions on decision making. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 109:1–8
Arnold M (1960) Emotions and personality, vol 1 and 2. Columbia University Press, New York
Arthur D, Quester P (2003) The ethicality of using fear for social advertising. Australas Mark J 11:12–27
Ashwin C, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, O’Riordan M, Bullmore ET (2007) Differential activation of the amygdala and the ‘social brain’ during fearful face-processing in Asperger Syndrome. Neuropsychologia 45:2–14
Baas D, Aleman A, Kahn RS (2004) Lateralization of amygdala activation: a systematic review of functional neuroimaging studies. Brain Res Rev 45:96–103
Bagozzi RP, Baumgartner H, Pieters R (1998) Goal-directed emotions. Cogn Emotion 12:1–26
Baker KB, Kim JJ (2004) Amygdalar lateralization in fear conditioning: evidence for greater involvements of the right amygdala. Behav Neurosci 118:15–23
Balconi M, Falbo L, Brambilla E (2009) BIS/BAS responses to emotional cues: self report, autonomic measure, and alpha brain modulation. Pers Individ Differ 47:858–863
Baron-Cohen S, Jolliffe T, Mortimore C, Robertson M (1997) Another advanced test of theory of mind: evidence from very high functioning adults with autism or Asperger syndrome. J Psychol Psychiatry Allied Discip 38:812–822
Batra R, Ray ML (1983) Conceptualizing involvement as depth and quality of cognitive response. In: Bagozzi RP, Tybout AM (eds) Advances in consumer research, vol 10. Association for Consumer Research, Ann Arbor, pp 309–313
Beauchamop TL (1988) Manipulative advertising. In: Beauchamp TL, Bowie NE (eds) Ethical theory and business, 3rd edn. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Bechara A (2004) The role of emotion in decision-making: evidence from neurological patients with orbitofrontal damage. Brain Cogn 55:30–40
Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR (1997) Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous situation. Science 285:1293–1294
Bechara A, Damasio H, Damasio AR (2000) Emotion, decision-making, and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex 10:295–307
Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Anderson SW (2001) Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 18:428–437
Benet S, Pitts RE, LaTour M (1993) The appropriateness of fear appeal use for health-care marketing to the elderly – is it OK to scare granny? J Bus Ethics 12:45–55
Berridge KC, Aldridge JW (2008) Decision utility, the brain, and the pursuit of hedonic goals. Soc Cogn 26:621–646
Bless H (2000) Moods and general knowledge structures: happy moods and their impact on information processing. In: Forgas JP (ed) Feeling and thinking: the role of affect in social cognition. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 131–142
Bogen JE (1985) The callosal syndromes. In: Heilman KM, Valenstein E (eds) Brain mechanisms underlying speech and language. Grune and Stratton, New York
Borod J, Koff E (1990) Lateralization of facial emotional behavior: a methodological perspective. Int J Psychol 25:157–177
Borod J, Koff E, Buck R (1986) The neuropsychology of facial expression: data from normal and brain-damaged adults. In: Blanck P, Buck R, Rosenthal R (eds) Nonverbal communication in the clinical context. Penn State University Press, University Park
Borod JC, Cicero BA, Obler LK, Welkowitz J, Erhan HM, Santschi C, Grunwald IS, Agosti RM, Whalen JR (1998) Right hemisphere emotional perception: evidence across multiple channels. Neuropsychology 12(3):446–458
Bower GH (1991) Mood congruity of social judgments. In: Forgas JP (ed) Emotion and social judgments. Pergamon, New York, pp 31–53
Boyanowsky EO, Newtson D, Walster E (1972) Film preferences following a murder. Commun Res 1:32–43
Buchnan TW, Tranel D, Adolphs R (2006) Memories for emotional autobiographical events following unilateral damage to medial temporal lobe. Brain 129:115–127
Buck R (1983) Emotional development and emotional education. In: Plutchik R, Kellerman H (eds) Emotion in early development. Academic, New York
Buck R (1985) Prime theory: an integrated view of motivation and emotion. Psychol Rev 92:389–413
Buck R (1988) Human motivation and emotion, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York
Buck R (1990) Rapport, emotional education, and emotional competence. Psychol Inq 1:301–302
Buck R (1994) The neuropsychology of communication: spontaneous and symbolic aspects. J Pragmatics 22:265–278
Buck R (1999) The biological affects: a typology. Psychol Rev 106:301–336
Buck R (2002) The genetics and biology of true love: prosocial biological affects and the left hemisphere. Psychol Rev 109:739–744
Buck R, Davis WA (2010) Marketing risk: emotional appeals can promote the mindless acceptance of risk. In: Roeser S (ed) Emotions and risky technologies. Springer, Berlin
Buck R, Duffy RJ (1980) Nonverbal communication of affect in brain-damaged patients. Cortex 16:351–362
Buck R, Powers SR (2011) Emotion, media, and the global village. In: Doveling K, von Scheve C, Konijn EA (eds) The routledge handbook of emotions and mass media. Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, New York
Buck R, Van Lear CA (2002) Verbal and nonverbal communication: distinguishing symbolic, spontaneous, and pseudo-spontaneous nonverbal behavior. J Commun 52:522–541
Buck R, Anderson E, Chaudhuri A, Ray I (2004) Emotion and reason in persuasion: applying the ARI model and the CASC scale. J Bus Res 57:647–656
Cahill L (2005) His brain, her brain. Sci Am 292(5):40–47
Cahill L, Uncapher M, Kilpatrick L, Alkire MT, Turner J (2004) Sex-related hemispheric lateralization of amygdala function in emotionally influenced memory: an fMRI investigation. learning and memory. Learn Mem 11:261–266
Calder AJ (2003) Disgust discussed. Ann Neurol 53:427–428
Calder AJ, Keane J, Manes F, Antoun N, Yong AW (2000) Impaired recognition and experience of disgust following brain injury. Nat Neurosci 3:1077–1078
Cantor J (1982) Developmental studies of children’s fright from mass media. In: Paper presented at the convention of the International Communication Association, Dallas
Chaudhuri A (2006) Emotion and reason in consumer behavior. Butterworth, Woburn
Chaudhuri A, Buck R (1995) Media differences in rational and emotional responses to advertising. J Broadcasting Electron Media 39(1):109–125
Cialdini RB, Goldstein NJ (2004) Social influence: compliance and conformity. Annu Rev Psychol 55:591–621
Clore GL, Gasper K, Garvin E (2002) Affect as information. In: Forgas JP (ed) Handbook of affect and social cognition. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah
Coleman-Mesches K, McGaugh JL (1995a) Differential involvement of the right and left amygdalae in expression of memory for aversively-motivated training. Brain Res 670:75–81
Coleman-Mesches K, McGaugh JL (1995b) Muscimol injected into the right or left amygdaloid complex differentially affects retention performance following aversively motivated training. Brain Res 676:183–188
Coleman-Mesches K, McGaugh JL (1995c) Muscimol injected into the right or left amygdaloid complex differentially affects retention performance following aversively motivated training. Brain Res 676:183–188
Coleman-Mesches K, Salinas JA, McGaugh JL (1996) Unilateral amygdala inactivation after training attenuates memory for reduced reward. Behav Brain Res 77:175–108
Cox EP, Wogalter MS, Stokes SL (1997) Do product warnings increase safe behavior? A meta-analysis. J Public Policy Mark 16:195–204
Damasio A (1994) Decartes’ error: emotion, reason, and the human brain. Gosset/Putnam, New York
Davidson RJ (1992) Prolegomenon to the structure of emotions: Gleanings from neuropsychology. Cogn Emot 6:245–258
Davidson RJ, Fox NA (1982) Asymmetrical brain activity discriminates between positive and negative affective stimuli in human infants. Science 218:1235–1237
Davidson RJ, Irwin W (1999) The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style. Trends Cogn Sci 3:11–21
Denenberg VH (1981) Hemispheric laterality in animals and the effects of early experience. Behav Brain Sci 4:1–19
Denenberg VH (1984) Behavioral asymmetry. In: Geschwind N, Galaburda AM (eds) Cerebral dominance: the biological foundations. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 114–133
Des Roches ADB, Richard-Yris M-A, Henry S, Ezzaouïa M, Hausberger M (2008) Laterality and emotions: visual laterality in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) differs with objects’ emotional value. Physiol Behav 94:487–490
Diefenbach MA, Hamrick N (2003) Self-regulation and genetic testing. In: Cameron LD, Leventhal H (eds) The self-regulation of health and illness behavior. Routledge, London, pp 314–331
Diefenbach MA, Miller SM, Porter M, Peters E, Stefanek M, Leventhal H (2008) Emotions and health behavior: a self-regulation perspective. In: Lewis M, Haviland-Jones JM, Feldman Barrett L (eds) Handbook of emotions. Guilford, New York
Donegan NH et al (2003) Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: implications for emotional dysregulation. Biol Psychiatry 54(11):1284–1293
Druckman JN, McDermott R (2008) Emotion and the framing of risky choice. Polit Behav 30:297–321
Ekman P, Friesen WV (1975) Unmasking the face. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs
Elster J (1998) Emotions and economic theory. J Econ Lit 36:47–74
Etcoff NL (1989) Recognition of emotion in patients with unilateral brain damage. In: Gainotti G, Caltagirone C (eds) Emotions and the dual brain. Experimental brain research series 18. Springer, New York, pp 168–186
Ferrer RA, Fisher JD, Buck R, Amico KR (2011) Adding emotional education to a social-cognitive sexual risk reduction intervention may sustain behavior change. Health Psychol (ePub ahead of print)
Fiedler K (2000) Towards an integrative account of affect and social cognition phenomena. In: Forgas JP (ed) Feeling and thinking: the role of affect in social cognition. Cambridge University press, Cambridge, pp 223–252
Fine C, Lumsden J, Blair RJR (2001) Dissociation between ‘theory of mind’ and executive functions in a patient with early left amygdala damage. Brain 124:287–298
Finkenauer C, Gallucci M, van Dijk WW, Pollmann M (2007) Investigating the role of time in affective forecasting: temporal influences on forecasting accuracy. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 33:1152–1166
Finucane ML (2008) Emotion, affect, and risk communication with older adults: challenges and opportunities. J Risk Res 11:983–997
Finucane ML, Peters E, Slovic P (2003) Judgment and decision making: the dance of affect and reason. In: Schneider SL, Shanteau J (eds) Emerging perspectives on judgment and decision research. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 327–364
Fischhoff B, Slovic P, Lichtenstein S, Read S, Combs B (1978) How safe is safe enough? A psychometric study of attitudes toward technological risks and benefits. Policy Sci 9:127–152
Fischhoff B, Gonzalez RM, Lerner JS, Small DA (2005) Evolving judgments of terror risks: foresight, hindsight, and emotion. J Exp Psychol Appl 11:124–139
Forgas JP (1995) Mood and judgment: the affect infusion model (AIM). Psychol Bull 117:39–66
Forgas JP (1999) On feeling good and being rude: affective influences on language use and request formulations. J Pers Soc Psychol 76:928–939
Forgas JP, Bower GH, Moylan SJ (1990) Praise or blame? Affective influences in attributions for achievement. J Pers Soc Psychol 59:809–818
Gasper K, Clore GL (1998) The persistent use of negative affect by anxious individuals to estimate risk. J Pers Soc Psychol 74:1350–1363
Gilbert DT, Pinel EC, Wilson TD, Blumberg SJ, Wheatley TP (1998) Immune neglect: a source of durability bias in affective forecasting. J Pers Soc Psychol 75:617–638
Greifender R, Bless H, Kuschmann T (2007) Extending the brand image on new products: the facilitative effect of happy mood states. J Consum Behav 6:19–31
Griskevicius V, Goldstein NJ, Mortensen CR, Sundie JM, Cialdini RB, Kenrick DT (2009) Fear and loving in Las Vegas: evolution, emotion, and persuasion. J Mark Res 46:384–395
Griskevicius V, Shiota MN, Neufeld SL (2010) Influence of different positive emotions on persuasion processing: a functional evolutionary approach. Emotion 10:190–206
Grunberg NE, Straub RO (1992) The role of gender and taste class in the effects of stress on eating. Health Psychol 11:97–100
Gur RC, Mozley LH, Mozley DP, Resnick SM, Karp JS, Alavi A, Arnold SE, Gur RE (1995) Sex differences in regional cerebral glucose metabolism during resting state. Science 267:528–531
Han S, Lerner JS, Keltner D (2007) Feelings and consumer decision making: the appraisal-tendency framework. J Consum Psychol 17:158–168
Hardee JE, Thompson JC, Puce A (2008) The left amygdala knows fear: laterality in the amygdala response to fearful eyes. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 3:47–54
Harle KM, Sanfey AG (2007) Incidental sadness biases social economic decisions in the ultimatum game. Emotion 7:876–881
Harmon-Jones E, Gable PA, Peterson CK (2010) The role of asymmetric frontal cortical activity in emotion-related phenomena: a review and update. Biol Psychol 84:451–462
Hastings G, Stead M, Webb J (2004) Fear appeals in social marketing: strategic and ethical reasons for concern. Psychol Mark 21:961–986
Hilton D (2008) Emotional tone and argumentation in risk communication. Judgment Decis Mak 3:100–110
Holstege G, Georgiadis JR, Paans AMJ, Meiners LC, Ferdinand HCE, van der Graaf FHCE, Simone Reinders AAT (2003) Brain activation during human male ejaculation. J Neurosci 23(27):9185–9193
Hsee CK, Weber EU (1997) A fundamental prediction error: self-other discrepancies in risk preference. J Exp Psychol Gen 126:45–53
Janszky J, Szucs A, Halasz P, Borbely C, Hollo A, Barsi P et al (2002) Orgasmic aura originates from the right hemisphere. Neurology 58:302–304
Johnson EJ, Tversky A (1983) Affect, generalization, and the perception of risk. J Pers Soc Psychol 45:20–31
Keltner D, Haidt J, Shiota MN (2006) Social functionalism and the evolution of emotions. In: Schaller M, Simpson JA, Kenrick DT (eds) Evolution and social psychology. Psychosocial Press, Madison, pp 115–142
Killgore WD, Yurgelun-Todd DA (2001) Sex differences in amygdala activation during the perception of facial affect. Neuroreport 12:2543–2547
Killgore WDS, Oki M, Yurgelun-Todd DA (2000) Sex-specific developmental changes in amygdala responses to affective faces. Neuroreport 12:427–433
Klein WMP, Zajac LE, Monin MM (2009) Worry as a moderator of the association between risk perceptions and quitting intentions in young adult and adult smokers. Ann Behav Med 38(3):256–261
Kluver H, Bucy PC (1939) Preliminary analysis of functions of the temporal lobe in monkeys. Arch Neurol Psych Chicago 42:979–1000
Koenigsberg HW, Sievera LJ, Lee H, Pizzarello S, Newa AS, Goodman M, Cheng H, Flory J, Prohovnika I (2009) Neural correlates of emotion processing in borderline personality disorder. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 172:192–199
Kowta S, Buck R (1995) A cross-cultural study of product involvement using the ARI model and the CASC scale. In: Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, 12 Aug 1995
Kunst-Wilson WR, Zajonc RB (1980) Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized. Science 207:557–558
Lawton R, Conner M, McEachan R (2009) Desire or reason: predicting health behaviors from affective and cognitive attitudes. Health Psychol 28:56–65
Lazarus RS (1982a) Thoughts on the relations between affect and cognition. Am Psychol 37:1019–1024
Lazarus RS (1982b) On the primacy of cognition. Am Psychol 39:124–129
Lazarus RS (1991a) Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Lazarus RS (1991b) Cognition and motivation in emotion. Am Psychol 46:352–367
Lazarus RS (1994a) Universal antecedents of emotion. In: Ekman P, Davidson RJ (eds) The nature of emotion: fundamental questions. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 163–171
Lazarus RS (1994b) Appraisal: the long and the short of it. In: Ekman P, Davidson RJ (eds) The nature of emotion: fundamental questions. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 208–215
Lazarus RC, Alfert E (1964) Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. J Abnorm Soc Psychol 69:195–205
LeDoux J (1986) The neurobiology of emotion. In: LeDoux J, Hirst W (eds) Mind and brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge University Press, New York, pp 301–354
LeDoux J (1996) The emotional brain. Simon & Schuster, New York
LeDoux JE (1994) Cognitive-emotional interactions in the brain. In: Ekman P, Davidson RJ (eds) The nature of emotion: fundamental questions. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 216–223
LeDoux JE, Sakaguchi A, Reis DJ (1984) Subcortical efferent projections of the medial geniculate nucleus mediate emotional responses conditioned to acoustic stimuli. J Neurosci 4:683–698
Lerner JS, Keltner D (2000) Beyond valence: toward a model of emotion-specific influences on judgment and choice. Cogn Emotion 14:473–494
Lerner JS, Keltner D (2001) Fear, anger, and risk. J Pers Soc Psychol 81:146–159
Lerner JS, Gonzalez R, Small D, Fischhoff B (2003) Effects of fear and anger on perceived risk of terrorism: a national field experiment. Psychol Sci 14:144–150
Lerner JS, Small DA, Loewenstein GF (2004) Heart strings and purse strings: carry-over effects of emotions on economic transactions. Psychol Sci 15:337–341
Lipkus IM, Klein WMP, Skinner CS, Rimer BK (2005) Breast cancer risk perceptions and breast cancer worry: what predicts what? J Risk Res 8:439–452
Loewenstein G (1996) Out of control: visceral influences on behavior. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 65:272–292
Loewenstein GF, Lerner JS (2003) The role of affect in decision making. In: Davidson R, Scherer K, Goldsmith H (eds) Handbook of affective science. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 619–642
Loewenstein GF, Weber EU, Hsee CK, Welch N (2001) Risk as feelings. Psychol Bull 127:267–286
MacLean PD (1993) Cerebral evolution of emotion. In: Lewis M, Haviland J (eds) Handbook of emotions. Guilford, New York, pp 67–83
Markowitsch HJ (1998) Differential contribution of right and left amygdala to affective information processing. Behav Neurol 11:233–244
McQuarrie EF, Munson JM (1987) The Zaichkowsky personal involvement inventory: modification and extension. In: Advances in consumer research, vol 14. Association for Consumer Research, Ann Arbor, pp 36–40
McWhirter JJ (1995) Emotional education for university students. J Coll Stud Psychother 10:27–38
Miller S, Diefenbach MA, Kruus L, Ohls L, Hanks G, Bruner D (2001) Psychological and screening profiles of first degree relatives of prostate cancer patients. J Behav Med 24:247–258
Ness RM, Klaas R (1994) Risk perception by patients with anxiety disorders. J Nerv Ment Dis 182:466–470
Norton TR, Bogart LM, Cecil H, Pinkerton SD (2005) Primacy of affect over cognition in determining adult men’s condom-use behavior. J Appl Soc Psychol 35:2493–2534
Panksepp J (1994) A proper distinction between cognitive and affective process is essential for neuroscientific progress. In: Ekman P, Davidson RJ (eds) The nature of emotion: fundamental questions. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 224–226
Peters E, Slovic P (2000) The springs of action: affective and analytical information processing in choice. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 26:1465–1475
Phelps EA, O’Connor KJ, Gatenby JC, Gore JC, Grillon C, Davis M (2001) Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nat Neurosci 4:437–441
Pritchard A, Morgan N (1998) ‘Mood marketing’ – the new destination branding strategy: a case study of ‘Wales’ brand. J Vacation Mark 4:215–229
Prodan CI, Orbelo DM, Testa JA, Ross ED (2001) Hemispheric differences in recognizing upper and lower facial displays of emotion. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 14:206–212
Raghunathan R, Pham MT (1999) All negative moods are not equal: motivational influences of anxiety and sadness on decision making. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 79:56–77
Rolls J (1999) The brain and emotion. Oxford University Press, New York
Ross E (1981) The aprosodias: functional-anatomic organization of the affective components of language in the right hemisphere. Arch Neurol 38:561–569
Ross ED (1992) Lateralization of affective prosody in the brain. Neurology 42(Suppl 3):411
Ross ED, Homan R, Buck R (1994) Differential hemispheric lateralization of primary and social emotions. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 7:1–19
Rottenstreish Y, Hsee CK (2001) Money, kisses, and electric shocks: on the affective psychology of risk. Psychol Sci 12:185–190
Rozin P, Haidt J, McCauley CR (1993) Disgust. In: Lewis M, Haviland J (eds) Handbook of emotions. Guilford, New York, pp 575–594
Schneider F, Grodd W, Weiss U, Klose U, Mayer KR, Nägele T, Gur RC (1997) Functional MRI reveals left amygdala activation during emotion. Psychiatry Res 76:75–82
Schwarz N (2002) Situated cognition and the wisdom of feelings: cognitive tuning. In: Feldman Barrett L, Salovey P (eds) The wisdom in feelings. Guilford, New York, pp 144–166
Schwarz N, Clore GL (1983) Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: informative and directive functions of affective states. J Pers Soc Psychol 45:513–523
Shamay-Tsoory SG, Lavidor M, Aharon-Peretz J (2008) Social learning modulates the lateralization of emotional valence. Brain Cogn 67:280–291
Shaughnessy MF, Shakesby P (1992) Adolescent sexual and emotional intimacy. Adolescence 27:475–480
Silberman EK, Weingartner H (1986) Hemispheric lateralization of functions related to emotion. Brain Cogn 5:322–353
Slovic P (1987) Perception of risk. Science 236:280–285
Slovic P, Finucane ML, Peters E, MacGregor DG (2004) Risk as analysis and risk as feelings: some thoughts about affect, reason, risk, and rationality. Risk Anal 24:311–322
Smith SD, Abou-Khalil B, Zaid DH (2008) Posttraumatic stress disorder in a patient with no left amygdala. J Abnorm Psychol 117:479–484
Spiesman JC, Lazarus RC, Mordkoff AM, Davidson LA (1964) Experimental reduction of stress based on ego-defense theory. J Abnorm Soc Psychol 68:367–380
Straube T, Weisbrod A, Schmidt S, Raschdorf C, Preul C, Mentzel H-J, Miltner WHR (2010) No impairment of recognition and experience of disgust in a patient with a right-hemispheric lesion of the insula and basal ganglia. Neuropsychologia 48:1735–1741
Strauss E (1986) Cerebral representation of emotion. In: Blanck P, Buck R, Rosenthal R (eds) Nonverbal communication in the clinical context. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park/London, pp 176–196
Szabo CA, Xiong J, Lancaster JL, Rainey L, Fox P (2001) Amygdalar and hippocampal volumetry in control participants. Am J Neuroradiol 22:1342–1345
Thaler RH, Sustein CR (2008) Nudge: improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press, New York
Tucker DM (1981) Lateral brain function, emotion, and conceptualization. Psychol Bull 89:19–46
Weinstein ND (1989) Effects of personal experience on self-protective behavior. Psychol Bull 105:31–50
Weinstein ND, Kwitel A, McCaul KD, Magnan RE, Gerrard M, Gibbons FX (2007) Risk perceptions: assessment and relationship to influenza vaccination. Health Psychol 26:146–151
Wilson WR (1979) Feeling more than we can know: exposure effects without learning. J Pers Soc Psychol 37:811–821
Zajonc RB (1980) Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inference. Am Psychol 35:151–175
Zajonc R (1984) On the primacy of affect. Am Psychol 39:117–123
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this entry
Cite this entry
Buck, R., Ferrer, R. (2012). Emotion, Warnings, and the Ethics of Risk Communication. In: Roeser, S., Hillerbrand, R., Sandin, P., Peterson, M. (eds) Handbook of Risk Theory. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1433-5_27
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1433-5_27
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-1432-8
Online ISBN: 978-94-007-1433-5
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and Law